Institutional Reform
Creating Organizations That Support Efficient Transport
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Victoria Transport Policy Institute
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Updated
22 July 2008
This chapter discusses various changes to transportation organizations’ policies and practices that support Transportation Demand Management.
Institutional Reforms are changes to transportation organizations’ policies and practices to support TDM implementation. This involves expanding by expanding the range of options considered in transport planning to include demand management strategies, and changing the methods used to define problems and evaluate solutions.
Most transportation agencies where created to build roads and are not well structured to support alternatives, particularly those that rely on “soft” programs such as Financial Incentives and Marketing. Transportation planning and funding practices are often biased toward capacity expansion, away from demand management alternatives (Comprehensive Planning). As a result, current planning organizations often overlook or undervalue TDM solutions, and so fail to implement TDM strategies as much as is justified.
TDM Programs bridge traditional institutional and jurisdictional boundaries. For example, implementing TDM often involves coordination between transportation and land use decision-making, innovative public-private partnerships, and funding for non-traditional transportation programs. This may require new interorganization relationships. Since TDM affects consumer behavior, it may also involve new public participation and Marketing activities.
Below are examples of institutional reforms and implementation activities:
·
Establish TDM policies, goals, objectives and Priorities.
·
Create a TDM Program within transportation
agencies.
·
Educate decision-makers and staff about TDM objectives, techniques and
resources.
· Encourage transportation
professionals to learn and apply Change Management skills. Support staff who apply
innovative solutions.
·
Developing Multi-Modal Level-of-Service Indicators suitable for
evaluating the quality of various transport modes from a users perspective.
This helps create a more neutral planning decisions that involve tradeoffs
between different transport modes.
·
Apply Contingency-Based Planning by identifying solutions that
will be deployed if needed to address future problems.
·
Allow and encourage local governments to implement efficient user-based
taxes and fees such as road pricing, parking pricing and location-based utility
fees (Market Reforms).
·
Implement Smart Growth Policy Reforms that
integrate transportation and land use planning and encourage more accessible
land use development.
·
Gather information for TDM Evaluation, such as Surveys that collect detailed information on the use of
alternative modes, and barriers to increased use.
·
Implement Least-Cost Planning. Correct existing
policies and institutional practices that favor highway expansion and
automobile travel.
·
Establish a “Fix-it-First” policy, which means that roadway capacity
expansion projects are only implemented if operations and maintenance programs
for existing facilities are adequately funded (Smart Growth
Policy Reforms). This reflects the higher priority of operations and
maintenance, and the inefficiency of increasing future financial obligations if
a jurisdiction cannot afford to support its existing facilities.
·
Change codes and standards to allow Context
Sensitive Design, which means that planners and engineers are allowed
greater flexibility to accommodate community values and balance objectives.
·
Create special zoning codes and development policies for Transit Oriented Development and other types of New Urbanist communities (Dittmar and Ohland, 2004).
·
Create regional transportation or transit authorities that support
alternative modes and mobility management programs, with adequate funding
(Public Transportation Group, 2002).
·
Develop cooperative relationships with other organizations that may
influence travel. For example, transportation agencies can work with planning
agencies to implement Parking Management strategies,
and with education agencies to help implement School Trip
Management programs.
·
Reallocate Road Space to favor alternative
modes, when appropriate to help achieve strategic transportation and land use
objectives.
Institutional Reform may involve changing the way transportation options are Evaluated. Conventional transportation planning tends to evaluate transportation system quality primarily based on motor vehicle traffic conditions (Measuring Transportation). Transportation planning based on Accessibility expands the range of solutions that can be used to solving transportation problems, including TDM. Similarly, conventional transportation planning tends to focus on a limited set of costs, such as agency expenses, travel time and vehicle costs, but may fail to account for many indirect costs, social costs and environmental costs. More Comprehensive Planning recognizes a wider range of TDM benefits, such as reduced parking costs, improve travel options for non-drivers and land use objectives that are often overlooked in conventional economic analysis.
Current transportation funding practices often make money
more easily available for highway projects than for other types of transport
improvements (Sussman,
2001; Meyer, 2001). For example, in the
Conventional planning tends to assume that transport progress is linear, with newer, faster modes replacing older, slower modes. This series model assumes that the older modes are unimportant, and so, for example, there is no harm if walking conditions and transit service decline, provided that automobile ownership and vehicle traffic speeds increase. From this perspective it is always undesirable to give public transit or walking priority over automobile travel. Transportation Demand Management requires a parallel model, which assumes that each mode can be useful, and strives to create balanced transport systems that use each mode for what it does best. Transport progress therefore involves improving all useful modes, not just the newest mode. For example, in many situations the best way to improve urban transportation may be to Improve Walking and Cycling Conditions, Improve Public Transit Service, or even to Restrict Automobile Travel, and give Priority to other modes. Although such an approach does not necessarily increase travel speeds, it improves the overall convenience, comfort and affordability of access to urban destinations.
Some institutional reforms require legislative or administrative action by policy makers and organizational executives. This may involves establishing goals, objectives and polices that support TDM, establishing a TDM Program or office within existing transportation agencies, budgeting adequate resources (money, staff time, etc.), educating transportation professionals about TDM, and overcoming identified obstacles. Least-Cost Planning can be implemented in conjunction with Institutional Reforms.
Some reforms can be implemented within transportation agencies. Agencies can educate planners and other decision-makers about alternatives, and change the way projects are evaluated to account for a wider range of objectives and impacts. Agencies can develop internal TDM programs.
Land use planning institutions may also require reforms to allow more flexible Parking Management and other Smart Growth policies (Hirschhorn, 2001).
Institutional reforms are often a key step in implementing TDM programs and specific strategies. Travel impacts depend on the design of the TDM program that is actually implemented.
Table 1 Travel Impact Summary
|
Travel
Impacts |
Rating |
Comments |
|
Reduces total traffic. |
2 |
Supports all types of TDM
strategies. |
|
Reduces peak period
traffic. |
2 |
" |
|
Shifts peak to off-peak
periods. |
2 |
" |
|
Shifts automobile travel to
alternative modes. |
2 |
" |
|
Improves access, reduces
the need for travel. |
2 |
" |
|
Increased ridesharing. |
2 |
" |
|
Increased public transit. |
2 |
" |
|
Increased cycling. |
2 |
" |
|
Increased walking. |
2 |
" |
|
Increased Telework. |
2 |
" |
|
Reduced freight traffic. |
2 |
" |
Rating from 3 (very beneficial) to –3 (very harmful). A 0 indicates no impact or mixed impacts.
Institutional reforms can help support all TDM objectives. These reforms can benefit agencies by expanding the menu of solutions they can apply to transportation problems. They can result in more efficient and accountable management practices, and a fairer distribution of resources. Reforms are often cost effective because they remove distortions and allow more cost effective solutions to transportation problems. Impacts vary, depending on the nature of institutional reforms and how they are implemented.
Costs include transition costs (such as the need to educate staff and reorganize institutions), TDM Program costs, and risks associated with unexpected consequences from new practices.
Table 2 Benefit Summary
|
Objective |
Rating |
Comments |
|
Congestion Reduction |
2 |
Supports TDM strategies
that reduce driving and sprawl. |
|
Road & Parking Savings |
2 |
|
|
Consumer Savings |
2 |
|
|
Transport Choice |
2 |
|
|
Road Safety |
2 |
|
|
Environmental Protection |
2 |
|
|
Efficient Land Use |
2 |
|
|
Community Livability |
2 |
|
Rating from 3 (very beneficial) to –3 (very harmful). A 0 indicates no impact or mixed impacts.
Institutional reforms can provide equity benefits by creating more neutral and transparent planning, resulting in a fairer distribution of resources. It tends to benefit lower-income and transportation disadvantaged people by improving Transportation Choices. Actual impacts vary, depending on the nature of institutional reforms and how they are implemented.
Table 3 Equity Summary
|
Criteria |
Rating |
Comments |
|
Treats everybody equally. |
3 |
Reduces existing
distortions that favor motorists. |
|
Individuals bear the costs
they impose. |
3 |
Reduces external costs of
automobile use. |
|
Progressive with respect to
income. |
3 |
Increases affordable access
and travel choice. |
|
Benefits transportation
disadvantaged. |
3 |
Increases travel choice. |
|
Improves basic mobility. |
3 |
Can improve basic travel
options. |
Rating from 3 (very
beneficial) to –3 (very harmful). A 0 indicates no impact or mixed impacts.
Reforms to support TDM may be implemented within any institution involved in transportation decision-making. They tend to be particularly appropriate in transportation planning and funding organizations. Institutional Reforms are most appropriate for transportation agencies. Businesses may require Institutional Reforms to establish Transportation Management Associations, Commute Trip Reduction and Parking Management programs.
Table 4 Application Summary
|
Geographic |
Rating |
Organization |
Rating |
|
Large urban region. |
3 |
Federal government. |
3 |
|
High-density, urban. |
3 |
State/provincial
government. |
3 |
|
Medium-density,
urban/suburban. |
3 |
Regional government. |
3 |
|
Town. |
2 |
Municipal/local government. |
3 |
|
Low-density, rural. |
2 |
Business Associations/TMA. |
1 |
|
Commercial center. |
2 |
Individual business. |
1 |
|
Residential neighborhood. |
1 |
Developer. |
1 |
|
Resort/recreation area. |
3 |
Neighborhood association. |
1 |
|
|
|
Campus. |
2 |
Ratings range from 0 (not
appropriate) to 3 (very appropriate).
Policy Reform
Institutional Reforms are a necessary foundation for many TDM policies and programs. Least Cost Planning, Change Management, Regulatory Reform, Market Reforms, TDM Programs, Commute Trip Reduction programs and Contingency-Based Planning often involve Institutional Reforms.
Policy makers and executives are often responsible for Institutional Reforms. Professional and political advocacy groups may provide guidance to reforms that are implemented by policy makers and organizational executives. Some reforms are implemented by private companies, such as Commute Trip Reduction programs and Transportation Management Associations established by businesses.
Barriers include political opposition, and resistance to change by public officials and staff.
|
If
you can start the day without caffeine, If
you can always be cheerful, ignoring aches and pains, If
you can resist complaining and boring people with your troubles, If
you can eat the same food every day and be grateful for it, If
you can understand when your loved ones are too busy to give you any time, If
you can overlook it when those you love take it out on you when, though no
fault of yours, something goes wrong, If
you can take criticism and blame without resentment, If
you can ignore a friend's limited education and never correct him/her, If
you can resist treating a rich friend better than a poor friend, If
you can face the world without lies and deceit, If
you can conquer tension without medical help, If
you can relax without liquor, If
you can sleep without the aid of drugs, If
you can honestly say that deep in your heart you have no prejudice against
creed, color, religion, gender preference, or politics, THEN,
you have ALMOST reached the same level of development as your dog. |
· Establish an institutional
framework for multi-modal, regional transport planning and funding.
· Apply Least-Cost
Planning principles, so demand management strategies are funded if they are
more cost effective overall than capacity expansion.
· Improve Modeling
and Evaluation practices to better evaluate alternative
modes and TDM strategies.
· Establish a TDM Program
within transportation agencies.
· Defining transportation
improvement goals broadly to include economic, social and environmental
objectives.
· Integrate transit system
service, marketing and fare payment systems.
· Consider a wide range of
solutions to transportation problems.
· Measure transportation
benefits in terms of access rather than mobility, and measure all costs, not
just financial costs.
· Develop education programs
for transportation agency staff so they can implement innovative solutions.
· Encourage innovative
transportation programs, and reward their success.
· Develop an effective
evaluation program that tracks progress toward goals and objectives.
The Greater Vancouver Transportation Authority, known as TransLink, was created by the British Columbia Greater Vancouver Transportation Authority Act in 1998. It is an independent organization governed by a board consisting of representatives from regional municipalities. It was established to provide coordination between different jurisdictions and modes, allowing one organization to plan and provide services for all forms of transportation in the region.
TransLink’s
mandate is to plan and finance a regional transportation system that moves
people and goods efficiently and supports the regional growth strategy, air
quality objectives and economic development of the Greater Vancouver Regional
District (GVRD). TransLink supports the GVRD’s Livable Region Strategic Plan, a
plan developed to address the regional growth we face. The goals of the plan
include preserving green space, reducing urban sprawl and protecting our air
quality.
TransLink’s
subsidiary companies and contractors provide
·
Public transit services (buses, SkyTrain, West Coast Express and
HandyDART)
·
Transportation Demand Management - trip reduction programs and
promoting transportation alternatives such as cycling and carpooling.
·
Major Road Network - in partnership with municipalities and other
agencies, TransLink helps fund the maintenance, rehabilitation and improvement
of the Major Road Network - 2,100 lane kilometres of roadways within the GVRD.
TransLink
is funded through property taxes, a portion of fuel taxes collected in the
region, and special taxes on parking. All revenues collected by TransLink are
allocated to its transportation programs and services.
In 2003 the New Zealand Government began establishing the
Auckland Regional Transport Authority (ARTA), which will have responsibility
for all
·
Operational planning of integrated road and passenger transport
infrastructure and services for the region, including consultation as
appropriate with Transfund, Transit, TrackCo and territorial authorities, and
travel demand management programs.
·
Funding of
·
Implementation of operational plans.
·
Funding all roads other than state highways, including c0-funding of all local
roads in conjunction with territorial authorities.
This new authority will be accountable to the Auckland Regional Council (ARC). The ARC will continue to have statutory responsibility for the Auckland Regional Growth Strategy, Auckland Regional Land Transport Strategy and the Auckland Regional Policy Statement.
The
ARTA will receive government and local money to implement the plan and will
contract with
Preventive
infrastructure maintenance programs tend to be cost effective, but may require
institutional reforms that place a greater value on avoided costs and
longer-term benefits. As one guidebook explains, “Preventive maintenance is
intended to treat small problems before they require more expensive repairs. By
slowing the rate of deterioration, treatment can effectively increase the
useful life of pavement. However, the practice of systematically identifying
payments that would benefit most from preventive maintenance, and of
implementing treatments in a timely manner, is often neglected.”
The
City of Cambridge, Massachusetts has established a Parking And Transportation Demand Management Planning department,
which has its own staff, programs and responsibilities.
Regional Operating
Organizations
(ROOs) are partnerships among transportation and public safety agencies
(police, fire departments, disaster management, etc.) to coordinate
transportation operations on a regional basis. These cooperative efforts take
different forms depending on needs, available resources, and existing policies,
procedures, and institutional relationships of partners within the region. They
are increasingly common in
·
Bring together transportation, public safety, and emergency management
operators to provide more effective management of incidents, disasters, and
emergency evacuations.
·
Establish new sources of funding for transportation and regional
control of major roadway and transit assets.
·
Reduce construction and incident-related delays through multi-agency
coordination and real-time information dissemination.
·
Enable agencies to share transportation data and software resources via
an integrated information backbone.
·
Enable public agencies and private partners to combine resources to
provide quality public and personalized transportation information services.
·
Improve transit services by implementing a common smartcard fare
collection system across transit operators.
A bill introduced into the
California State Senate, SB 375, would compel local planning agencies to make
planning choices that reduce Vehicle Miles Traveled (VMT). The bill provides
incentives for regions to consider the impact of land use on climate change.
Under the provisions of the bill, the regions must engage in a process to
develop scenarios that show a contribution to climate change, and if they do so
but are unable to actually achieve the goal, the state is going to require the
region to submit reports demonstrating the strategies they may need to meet the
goals. If they don’t choose to engage in the process of developing better
planning scenarios, then we’re going to tie transportation funding to that
refusal.
Office of Operations is a U.S. Federal Highway Administration department that promotes innovative policies and programs that result in more efficient and cost effective use of roadway systems. It coordinates research, planning and implementation related to mobility management, freight management and intelligent transportation system programs.
Governor
Mitt Romney, January 27, 2003
Statement of Policy
It
shall be the policy of the
1. Fix
It First: To give priority to the repair of existing streets, roads and
bridges; and
2. Use
Community-Friendly Solutions: Wherever a street, road or bridge needs to be
re-designed and reconstructed, to plan and undertake, in collaboration with the
affected community, a “context-sensitive” project -- one that fully protects
and enhances the surrounding community and landscape while addressing mobility
for all transportation modes.
Purposes.
The
purposes of this policy are to
* Prevent sprawl;
* Recognize all the Commonwealth’s
citizens and communities as its transportation agencies’ customers;
* Avoid the costs associated with
unnecessary road widenings and the conflicts they entail, and thereby use
available funding to complete more projects in more communities and to produce
more construction jobs; and
* Provide enhanced mobility for
sustainable transportation modes (walking, bicycling, and public
transportation).
Actions
The
Chief of Commonwealth Development and Secretary of Transportation and
Construction are hereby directed to take the following actions to implement
this policy.
1.
The Highway Design Manual and any other relevant standards, guidelines and
policies of MassHighway shall be reviewed and revised to incorporate the principles
of context-sensitive design, traffic calming, and multi-modal accommodation. An
advisory committee consisting of representatives of municipalities, regional
planning councils, and other affected interests shall be formed to help guide
this process, and ample opportunity for input from the general public shall be
provided. The process of revising the manual and any other standards,
guidelines and policies shall be completed by October 1, 2003.
2.
Projects with community-friendly design that can be undertaken immediately
using existing funds shall be identified by MassHighway as quickly as possible,
and no later thirty days from this date, and implemented immediately
thereafter.
3.
An ombudsman shall be appointed in the Executive Office of Transportation and
Construction and have responsibility for hearing and facilitating the
resolution of citizen and community concerns regarding project design. In
addition, a process for expediting project review and requests for waivers from
current design standards and guidelines, and requests for exercise of
flexibility in applying current design standards and guidelines, shall be
established within MassHighway and overseen by the Secretary of Transportation
and Construction. All documentation regarding waivers shall be made
available for public review.
4.
All actions taken pursuant to this policy shall fully honor the letter and
spirit of provisions in the Massachusetts General Laws requiring the
accommodation of bicycle and pedestrian traffic, including chapter 90E, section
2A. Where there are differences of opinion concerning the necessity or
desirability of widening pavement, eliminating curbside parking, or taking
other measures to accommodate bicyclists and/or pedestrians, full use shall be
made of creative design expertise and public involvement, facilitation or
dispute resolution processes.
5.
A plan for repairing or reconstructing the state’s structurally deficient
bridges shall be developed and finalized, in consultation with the
Commonwealth’s municipalities and metropolitan planning organizations, by July
1, 2003. This plan shall address all the state¹s bridges, including in
particular those owned or controlled by the Metropolitan District Commission,
Department of Environmental Management, and Massachusetts Bay Transportation
Authority as well as other agencies. It shall include a budget and a schedule
for completing the bridge repair and reconstruction process.
The
International Council for Local
Environmental Initiatives sponsors the Cities
for Climate Protection Program, which helps local governments create
programs to encourage more efficient energy use, including transportation
demand management.
The
Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP) of the Transportation Research
Board is sponsoring a “New Paradigms for Local Public Transportation
Organizations” program to investigate fundamental changes that transportation
organizations can make to better serve their mandate, including changes in
objectives, responsibilities and scope, relationships with stakeholders,
organizational structures and technologies. This program is intended to help
coordinate positive change among individual transit agencies.
In
1993
· After 2 years: 15%
· After 4 years: 20%
· After 6 years: 25%
· After 12 years: 35%
The ordinance identifies
which commuters are affected (private and public employers with 100 or more
affected employees at a single worksite, with certain exemptions), program components (a transportation
coordinator, information distribution to employees, commuter surveys, etc.), what types of commute trip reduction measures may be
included in the program, and how travel impacts are measured and reported. The
ordinance affects 53 employers with 22,000 employees. Among all CTR-affected
worksites, the drive-alone rate has dropped from 77% in 1993 to 69% in 2001,
and among downtown Bellevue
CTR-affected worksites the drive-alone rate has dropped from 73% in 1993 to 59%
in 2001.
The
·
TDM Definition,
Overview and Rationale
·
Canadian
Experience and Resources
·
International
Experience and Resources
·
TDM Project
Database
The
· TGM Code Assistance. The Oregon TGM code assistance services help communities modify their
development ordinances, comprehensive plans, and development review procedures
to allow and encourage smart development patterns.
· TGM Consultants.
The Quick Response Program (Oregon TGM consultants) provides planning and
design services to help developers and communities create compact,
pedestrian-friendly, and livable neighborhoods and activity centers. In
response to local requests, property owners, local and state officials, and
affected stakeholders come together to review development proposals, develop
innovative design solutions, and overcome regulatory obstacles to land use,
transportation, and design issues.
· TGM Grants. Since
the 1993-1995 biennium, the Oregon TGM program has distributed $21.6 million in
planning grants to local governments to accomplish transportation-efficient
planning. In the 2001-2003 biennium, grants of approximately $4.9 million have
been awarded to local jurisdictions for Transportation System Planning
and Integrated Land Use and Transportation Planning (grants to help
local governments develop integrated land use and transportation system plans
that promote compact, mixed-use, pedestrian-friendly development and reduce
reliance on the automobile.)
· TGM Outreach Program. The Oregon TGM Outreach program is aimed at increasing
the understanding and acceptance of smart development principles through things
like workshops, a partnership program and technical assistance for
practitioners. Maine DOT is also looking at creating tools and outreach
programs that would link transportation and land use for local decision makers.
A comprehensive study of
European TDM programs found that European planners tend to use more
comprehensive strategies to influence travelers before they get into their cars
(promoting nonmotorized modes and alternative destinations of travel) and
provide improved options for drivers who choose to use the road system (faster
routes and more reliable travel times).
A variety of management
systems are used to manage travel demand and traffic. Pretrip traveler
information systems are clearly designed to encourage more efficient travel by
suggesting routes and times of the day that are less congested and offer more
reliable travel times. Pretrip information can also influence the mode selected
(e.g., public transport or carpooling) or even the destination of travel
(whether to work from home or shop closer to home). In addition, near-trip and
even on-trip (en route) information can influence time, route, mode, and
destination choice. For example, commuters can be provided with real-time
information on travel times to their work location if they continue to drive or
shift to a nearby park-and-ride service. Road pricing can clearly affect mode,
time, and route choice, and even influence lane choice, as is the case with
high occupancy toll (HOT) lanes in the
In the center of the
management systems is the transportation management center (TMC), which both
manages facilities and provides information to travelers. Traditional
transportation demand management (TDM), such as rideshare matching, promotion
of alternative modes, and vanpool provision, typically works at the other end
of the framework to influence mode and destination choice based on the need to
travel, but it can also be an integral part of the information systems linked
to the TMC. This comprehensive approach provides a new way of looking at the
need for and management of transport and traffic demand.
These programs are designed
not just to reduce traffic congestion, they are intended to create more
livable, sustainable cities by creating and implementing integrated packages of
transportation measures that combined improved alternatives to driving a car;
real-time information on traffic conditions; options providing pretrip,
near-trip, and on-trip route information; new partnerships to support these
enhanced travel choices; and even pricing to reduce the number of cars entering
the city centers or on the entire network during congestion periods. Planners
are doing so by integrating demand management into both their long-range
transportation plans and shorter range operating policies. They are carefully
monitoring the performance of the system by looking not only at mobility but
also at measures such as accessibility, air quality, and livability.
The Florida Department of
Transportation has developed several planning tools for evaluating access and
multi-modal level-of-service. The state’s “Transportation Concurrency
Management Area” defines geographically compact areas where traffic congestion
thresholds are reduced due to a high level of accessibility and quality travel
options. FDOT pays particular attention
to walking and cycling.
A special Multimodal Transportation Level of
Service Manual is used in
A study by leading experts recommends the following
general principles to create more integrated and efficient local
decision-making in the European Union:
1. Enforce strategic (integration and with a long term
perspective) visions, planning ability, capacity to use a wider and more
innovative range of tools.
2. Promote management skills to start up and join
participatory and proactive processes, involving all relevant actors/bodies and
to drive, adapt and implement local strategic planning, influencing and
promoting the adoption of self – regulated behaviour from all the partners.
3. Consider and reflect upon national/local
specificity and differences, being aware of new urban dynamics and of recent
and relevant trends (such as increasing liberalisation of the environmental
markets, globalisation of pressures, the need for urban renewal, etc.).
A study comparing various
European regions and cities identified key transport policy practices and
institutional structures that result in successful service delivery. These
include:
·
Availability of
adequate capital funding for public transport.
·
Relatively low
public transport fares.
·
Integration of
public transport services (timed connections, new journey opportunities etc).
·
Integration of
regional, multimodal ticketing systems.
·
Restraint of
parking and reallocation of road space to more sustainable modes.
·
Long-term
planning and implementation of these policies. To be effective, these polices
must be in place for a long time (a decade or more), which implies consistent
political consensus on their efficacy.
·
Adequate
regulation of bus transit systems; the most successful systems are run on a
franchised (quality contract-type) basis.
The
Apogee (1997), Costs and Effectiveness of Transportation Control Measures, National Association of Regional Councils (www.narc.org).
Booz-Allen & Hamilton (2001), Organizing for
Regional Transportation Operations: An Executive Guide, Federation Highway
Administration and
Colin Buchanan and Partners (2003), Transferability
Of Best Practice In Transport Policy Delivery, Scottish Executive (www.scotland.gov.uk/library5/development/bpitp-00.asp).
John Cracknell (2000), Experience in Urban Traffic Management and Demand Management in Developing Countries, World Bank, Urban Transport Strategy Review (http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/transport/utsr.nsf).
Hank Dittmar and Gloria Ohland (2004), The New Transit Town: Best Practices in Transit-Oriented Development, Island Press (www.islandpress.com).
David Dowall
(2002), “Reforming
Infrastructure Planning,” ACCESS 20 (www.uctc.net), Spring
2002, pp. 8-13.
Dr. Marcus Enoch, Lian Zhang and David Morris (2005),
Organisational Structures for Implementing Travel Plans: A Review,
European Commission (2002), Towards More Integrated Implementation Of Environmental Legislation In Urban Areas, Working Group on Integrated Implementation of Environmental Legislation (WG/IIEL), European Commission (DG Environment), (http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/urban/pdf/0302finalreport.pdf).
Reid
FCM
(2002), Timely
Preventive Maintenance for Municipal Roads - A Primer, National Guide to Sustainable
Municipal Infrastructure (www.infraguide.ca).
FHWA, National Dialogue on Transportation Operations (www.ops.fhwa.dot.gov/nat_dialogue.htm), discusses institutional changes needed to implement more efficient transportation.
FHWA (2006), Managing Travel Demand: Applying European
Perspectives to
Ralph Gakenheimer (1999), “Urban Mobility in the Developing World,” Transportation Research A, Vol. 33, No. 7/8, Sept./Nov. 1999, pp. 671-689.
Joel S. Hirschhorn (2001), New Community Design to the Rescue, National Governor’s Association (www.nga.org).
International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (www.iclei.org) provides tools to help communities become healthier and more environmentally responsible.
David M.
Levinson (2000),
“Revenue Choice on Serial Networks,” Journal of Transport Economics &
Policy, Vol. 34, Part 1, January 2000, pp. 69-78.
Todd Litman
(2006), “Transportation Market Distortions,” Berkeley Planning Journal; issue theme Sustainable Transport in the
Todd Litman
(2007), Socially Optimal Transport Prices and Markets, VTPI (www.vtpi.org);
available at www.vtpi.org/sotpm.pdf.
Michael D. Meyer (1999), “Demand Management as an Element of Transportation Policy,” Transportation Research A, Vol. 33, No. 7/8, Sept./Nov. 1999, pp. 575-599.
Michael Meyer
(2001), Measuring System
Performance: The Key to Establishing Operations as a Core Agency
(www.ops.fhwa.dot.gov/Speech%20Files/FHWAPerformancemeasures.doc).
Eric Morris (2006), “How Privitization Became a Train Wreck,” ACCESS 28, University of California Transportation Center (www.uctc.net), Spring 2006, pp. 18-25.
OECD (2002), Road Travel Demand: Meeting the Challenge, Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development (www.oecd.org).
Public Transportation Group (2002), Regionalizing Public Transportation Services, Institute for Transportation Research and Education, North Carolina State University, for the North Carolina Department of Transportation, Research Project 2002-11 (www.ncdot.org/~research).
RAND Europe (2005), Analysis and Assessment of Policies: Report on Performance of Policies, European Commission (www.summa-eu.org).
Shelly J. Row (2003), “The National Transportation Operations Coalition: Moving From Dialogue to Action,” ITE Journal, Vol. 73, No. 12, Institute of Transportation Engineers (www.ite.org), December 2003, pp. 28-31.
Smart Growth
Darrell Steinberg (2007), “SB 375 Connects Land Use and AB 32 Implementation,” The Planning Report (www.planningreport.com); at www.planningreport.com/tpr/?module=displaystory&story_id=1257&format=html.
STPP (2003), The $300 Billion Question: Are We Buying a Better Transportation System?, Surface Transportation Policy Project (www.transact.org/library/Recommendations.asp).
Strategic Policy Options for Sustainable Development Database (www.iges.or.jp/cgi-bin/rispo/index_spo.cgi), Research on Innovative and Strategic Policy Options (RISPO) by the Institute for Global Environmental Studies provides information, recommended best practices and case studies on a wide range of sustainable policies and strategies.
Joseph M. Sussman (2001), Transportation Operations: An Organizational And Institutional Perspective, National Dialogue on Transportation Operations, Federal Highway Administration (www.ops.fhwa.dot.gov/Speech%20Files/Sussman1.doc).
Transport Institutions in the Policy Process (www.strafica.fi/tipp/about.html)
is a European research program investigating how institutional arrangements and
interactions affect the implementation of transport policies.
This
Encyclopedia is produced by the Victoria Transport Policy Institute to help
improve understanding of Transportation Demand Management. It is an ongoing
project. Please send us your comments and suggestions for improvement.
Victoria Transport Policy Institute
www.vtpi.org info@vtpi.org
Phone & Fax 250-360-1560
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