Public Transit Improvements
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Victoria Transport Policy
Institute
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Updated
26 July 2008
This chapter describes ways to
improve public transit service quality, including increased service speed,
frequency, convenience, comfort, user information, affordability and ease of
access.
Public Transit (also called Mass Transit) includes various services using shared vehicles to provide mobility to the public. These include:
·
Heavy rail – relatively large, higher-speed trains, operating entirely on separate
rights-of-way, with infrequent stops, providing service between communities.
·
Light Rail Transit (LRT) – moderate size, medium-speed
trains, operating mainly on separate rights-of-way, with variable distances
between stations, providing service between urban neighborhoods and commercial
centers.
·
Streetcars (also called trams or trolleys) – relatively small, lower-speed trains, operating primarily on urban
streets, with frequent stops which provide service along major urban corridors.
·
Conventional, full-size, fixed route transit bus.
·
Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) – which refers to a set of bus system design
features that provide a high quality of service.
·
Express commuter bus.
·
Ferry services.
· Mini bus.
·
Paratransit and Shuttle Services.
·
Personal Rapid Transit (PRT) which are small, automated vehicles that
provide door-to-door transit service on demand.
·
Shared Taxi.
Although Public Transit provides a relatively small portion of total travel, it provides a much larger portion of certain types of travel, and is an effective solution to certain transport problems. It is most suitable for medium-distance trips in urban areas or on any corridor with adequate demand, and as an alternative mode for travelers who for any reason cannot use a private automobile. It can support a variety of community development objectives. For more discussion see Transit Evaluation.
There are many ways to improve public transit service and Encourage transit ridership:
· Increase service, including
more routes covering more area, increased service frequency, and longer hours
of operation.
· Improved coordination among
transit modes, such as buses, trains, ferries and airports.
· HOV
Priority (HOV lanes, busways, queue-jumper lanes, bus-priority traffic signals,
and other measures that reduce delay to transit vehicles). Grade separate
transit lines, so they are not delayed by cross-streets and traffic congestion.
· Reallocate
Road Space to transit and walking.
· Comfort improvements, such
as reduced crowding, better seats and cleaner vehicles.
· Improved Stops
and Stations, including shelter (enclosed waiting areas, with heating in
winter and cooling in summer), seating, transit user information and wayfinding
guidance, washrooms, refreshments, Internet services, etc.
· Lower fares and discounts,
and more convenient fare payment (such as electronic “smart cards”).
· Improved rider information
and Marketing programs, including real-time information
on transit vehicle arrival.
· Transit
Oriented Development and Smart Growth, which result
in land use patterns more suitable for transit transportation.
· Pedestrian
and Cycling Improvements that improve access around transit stops.
· Bike and
Transit Integration (bike racks on buses, bike routes and Bicycle Parking near transit stops).
· Universal
Design of vehicles, stations and pedestrian facilities to accommodate
people with disabilities and other special needs.
· Park
& Ride facilities.
· Improved Security
for transit users and pedestrians.
· Multi-Modal
Access Guides, which includes maps, schedules, contact numbers and other
information on how to reach a particular destination by public transit.
· Services targeting
particular travel needs, such as express commuter buses, Special
Event service, and various types of Shuttle Services.
Since transit service and automobile travel both impose significant costs (including indirect costs such as congestion, road wear and pollution emissions), improvements and incentives that increase transit load factors and attract travelers who would otherwise drive tend to provide large benefits. Described differently, there is little benefit to society from simply operating transit vehicles (excepting Option Value); most benefits depend on how much transit is used, how well the service responds to users’ needs and preferences, the amount of automobile travel displaced, and the various savings and benefits that result (including reduced vehicle ownership and operating cost, avoided roadway and parking facility expansion, increased safety, etc.).
Transit service improvements and Encouragement Programs are usually implemented by transit agencies, often with support from other government agencies and businesses. Major transit investments sometimes require voter approval. Some improvements, such as HOV lanes and Park-and-Ride facilities, are provided by roadway agencies. User comfort improvements and amenities on vehicles and at waiting areas (less crowding, more comfortable seats, washrooms, cleanliness, etc.) can increase improve transit service and attract riders (Project for Public Spaces, 1999; Kittleson & Associates, 1999; TranSystem, 2005).
Transit Oriented Development is usually implemented by local governments in conjunction with Smart Growth land use development plans. Shuttle Services are often managed by local non-profit organizations. Transit encouragement is often part of Commute Trip Reduction, Campus Trip Management and Tourist Transport Management programs. Regulatory Reforms may be needed to allow some types of innovative transit services and encourage competition. Public transit improvements may require Institutional Reforms, such as the creation of regional authorities with dedicated funding (Public Transportation Group, 2002), Least Cost Planning to allow transit to compete for funding with highway investments, and more Comprehensive Planning that takes into account all transit benefits.
Travel impacts depend on the type of service and the conditions in which it is implemented. See Transit Evaluation, Pratt (1999), and Kittleson & Associates (1999) for more information on travel impacts. See Transportation Elasticities for information on how user prices affect transit use. See Bus Rapid Transit, Light Rail Transit and Shuttle Services for more information on the travel impacts and benefits of specific types of Transit.
TranSystem (2005) and Stanley and Hyman (2005) identify various factors and strategies that tend to increase transit ridership in an area, including improved service, reduced fares, Marketing and more integrated planning. Increased transit service and comfort, and reducing transit fares tends to increase transit ridership. The elasticity of transit use with respect to transit service frequency averages 0.5, meaning that each 1.0% increase in service (measured by transit vehicle mileage or operating hours) increases average ridership by 0.5% (Pratt, 1999). The elasticity of transit use to service expansion (e.g. routes into new parts of a community already served by transit) is typically in the range of 0.6 to 1.0, meaning that each 1.0% of additional service increases ridership by 0.6-1.0%. New bus service in a community typically achieves 3 to 5 annual rides per capita, with 0.8 to 1.2 passengers per bus-mile. Ridership may be higher in some areas, such as university towns or suburbs with rail transit stations to feed. Comprehensive improvements, such as Light Rail or Bus Rapid Transit systems, can provide large increases in transit use and attract large numbers of discretionary riders who would otherwise travel by automobile.
Walle and Steenberghen (2006) highlight the increasing frequency of trip chaining (multiple link trips, such as stopping at a store while commuting), and the importance of designing public transit services to accommodate complex trips by integrating with other modes, such as Park & Ride, Carsharing, Bike and Transit Integration and Ridesharing.
Improved schedule information, easy-to-remember departure times (for example, every hour or half-hour), and more convenient transfers appear to increase transit use, particularly in areas where service is less frequent. The table below summarizes transit elasticity estimates. This can be used to predict how various types of changes in price and service are likely to affect transit ridership and travel behavior.
Table 1 Transit
Elasticity Values (Transportation
Elasticities)
|
|
Market Segment |
Short Term |
Long Term |
|
Transit ridership WRT transit fares |
Overall |
–0.2 to –0.5 |
–0.6 to –0.9 |
|
Transit ridership WRT transit fares |
Peak |
–0.15 to –0.3 |
–0.4 to –0.6 |
|
Transit ridership WRT transit fares |
Off-peak |
–0.3 to –0.6 |
–0.8 to –1.0 |
|
Transit ridership WRT transit fares |
Suburban Commuters |
–0.3 to –0.6 |
–0.8 to –1.0 |
|
Transit ridership WRT transit service |
Overall |
0.50 to 0.7 |
0.7 to 1.1 |
|
Transit ridership WRT auto operating costs |
Overall |
0.05 to 0.15 |
0.2 to 0.4 |
|
Automobile travel WRT transit costs |
Overall |
0.03 to 0.1 |
0.15 to 0.3 |
This table summarizes estimates of transit elasticities. These values can be used to predict how price and service changes are likely to affect transit ridership and travel behavior.
Commuter Financial Incentives, in which employers subsidize transit passes, can provide the equivalent to fare reductions to commuters. A combination of transit improvements (fare reductions, service improvements, service expansion), Transit Encouragement programs, and complementary TDM strategies can be particularly effective at increasing transit ridership. Commute Trip Reduction programs, Parking Pricing and Commuter Financial Incentives encourage transit commuting (Peng, Dueker, and Strathman, 1996). Campus Transport Management that include discounted transit passes and service improvements have tripled transit ridership in some college communities. The Trip Reduction Tables indicate the reduction in commute trips that can be expected from various combinations of financial incentives for transit and ridesharing. The Transport Elasticities chapter provides additional information on the travel impacts of various price changes.
Not all increased transit travel represents a reduction in automobile travel. A portion represents shifts from walking, cycling and ridesharing, or absolute increases in personal travel. On the other hand, some types of transit improvements lead to more Accessible land use, which reduces Automobile Dependency and per capita motor vehicle travel. As a result, residents of Transit Oriented Development tend to drive about 20% less than they would if they lived in conventional neighborhoods. Some studies indicate that this can leverage much greater reductions in vehicle travel than just the trips that shift from automobile to transit (Transit Evaluation). Of course, many factors influence how much a particular transit project affects land use and travel behavior. The Land Use Impacts chapter provides additional information on the travel impacts of various land use changes.
Table 2 Travel Impact Summary
|
Travel
Impact |
Rating |
Explanation |
|
Reduces total traffic. |
3 |
Can reduce automobile use. |
|
Reduces peak period
traffic. |
3 |
Tends to be attractive for
commute trips. |
|
Shifts peak to off-peak
periods. |
1 |
Off-peak fare discounts
induce some shifts. |
|
Shifts automobile travel to
alternative modes. |
3 |
|
|
Improves access, reduces
the need for travel. |
2 |
Can encourage
higher-density, clustered land use. |
|
Increased ridesharing. |
0 |
|
|
Increased public transit. |
3 |
|
|
Increased cycling. |
1 |
Can support cycling. |
|
Increased walking. |
2 |
Supports pedestrian travel. |
|
Increased Telework. |
0 |
|
|
Reduced freight traffic. |
0 |
|
Rating from 3 (very beneficial) to –3 (very harmful). A 0 indicates no impact or mixed impacts.
The table below summarizes specific benefit categories. Most direct benefits of transit services can be divided into two major categories: Mobility benefits result from increased travel by people who are economically, physically and socially disadvantaged. Efficiency benefits result from reduced vehicle traffic when inefficient automobile travel shifts to more efficient transit travel. The Evaluating Transit chapter provides more information about these impacts, describes how to measure them, and how to evaluate a particular transit policy or program.
Table 3 Transit Costs
and Benefits (Evaluating Transit)
|
Impact Category |
Description |
|
Transit Service Costs |
Financial costs of providing transit services |
|
Fares |
Direct payments by transit users. |
|
Subsidies |
Government expenses to provide transit services. |
|
Existing
User Impacts |
Incremental
benefits and costs to existing transit users (changes
in travel speed, comfort, safety, etc. to existing transit users). |
|
Mobility Benefits |
Benefits from increased travel that would not
otherwise occur. |
|
Direct User Benefits |
Direct benefits to users from increased mobility. |
|
Public Services |
Support for public services and cost savings for government agencies. |
|
Productivity |
Increased productivity from improved access to education and jobs. |
|
Equity |
Improved mobility that makes people who are also economically, socially or physically disadvantaged relatively better off. |
|
Option Value |
Benefits of having mobility options available, in case they are ever needed. |
|
Efficiency Benefits |
Benefits from reduced motor vehicle traffic. |
|
Vehicle Costs |
Changes in vehicle ownership, operating and residential parking costs. |
|
Chauffeuring |
Reduced chauffeuring responsibilities by drivers for non-drivers. |
|
Vehicle Delays |
Reduced motor vehicle traffic congestion. |
|
Pedestrian Delays |
Reduced traffic delay to pedestrians. |
|
Parking Costs |
Reduced parking problems and non-residential parking facility costs. |
|
Safety, Security and Health |
Changes in crash costs, personal security and improved health and fitness due to increased walking and cycling. |
|
Roadway Costs |
Changes in roadway construction, maintenance and traffic service costs. |
|
Energy and Emissions |
Changes in energy consumption, air, noise and water pollution. |
|
Travel Time Impacts |
Changes in transit users’ travel time costs. |
|
Land Use Impacts |
Benefits from changes in land use patterns. |
|
|
Changes in the amount of land needed for roads and parking facilities. |
|
Land Use Objectives |
Supports land use objectives such as infill, efficient public services, clustering, accessibility, land use mix, and preservation of ecological and social resources. |
|
Economic Development |
Benefits from increased economic productivity and
employment. |
|
Direct |
Jobs and business activity created by transit expenditures. |
|
Shifted Expenditures |
Increased regional economic activity due to shifts in consumer expenditures to goods with greater regional employment multipliers. |
|
Agglomeration Economies |
Productivity gains due to more clustered, accessible land use patterns. |
|
Transportation Efficiencies |
More efficient transport system due to economies of scale in transit service, more accessible land use patterns, and reduced automobile dependency. |
|
Land Value Impacts |
Higher property values in areas served by public transit. |
This table summarizes major categories of transit service costs and benefits.
Although transit provides a relatively small portion of total travel, it tends to be concentrated in dense urban areas where motor vehicle external costs are high. As a result, it can provide significant benefits from congestion reductions, road and parking facility cost savings, user cost savings, efficient land use, and environmental protection. Transit can help create a more Resilient transportation system that can accommodate unpredictable change.
Where transit is a catalyst for Smart Growth land use it can provide a variety of indirect benefits, including Increased Property Values and improved community Livability near transit stations, and increased Economic Development. These benefits can be substantial, in some cases offsetting a significant portion of transit service public costs (Smith and Gihring, 2003).
EDRG (2007) used quantitative analysis to estimate that the
current
The public costs of providing transit depend on many factors, including the type of transit service, traffic conditions and ridership. Transit service is generally subsidized (see discussion of costs and subsidies in Transit Evaluation), but these subsidies decline with increased ridership because transit services tend to experience economies of scale (a 10% increase in capacity increases costs by less than 10%). Transit Encouragement strategies that increase ridership and system load factors (the portion of system capacity that is used) can be very cost effective.
Table 4 Benefit Summary
|
Objective |
Rating |
Comments |
|
Congestion Reduction |
3 |
Reduces automobile use on
congested corridors. |
|
Road & Parking Savings |
2 |
Reduces road space and
parking requirements. Buses may increase road wear costs. |
|
Consumer Savings |
3 |
Provides affordable
mobility. |
|
Transport Choice |
3 |
Increases transport choice
for non-drivers. |
|
Road Safety |
2 |
Tends to be safer than
driving overall. |
|
Environmental Protection |