TDM Marketing
Information and Encouragement Programs
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Victoria Transport Policy Institute
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Updated
5 August 2008
This chapter describes TDM marketing programs and strategies, which investigate the types of transportation services people want, identify barriers to alternative modes, and promote use of efficient transport options.
“Information is as powerful as
infrastructure.”
Description
Marketing involves determining consumer needs and preferences, creating appropriate products, providing useful information about products to consumers, and promoting their use. Public knowledge and attitudes have a major effect on travel behavior, so marketing is an important component of TDM implementation.
Marketing is more than simply advertising to promote a product or activity. It is an ongoing dialogue between producers and consumers. It involves Change Management, that is an effort to change the way problems are defined and solutions evaluated. The most effective TDM Marketing programs involve a variety of partners within a community, including public officials, community organizations and individuals who support transportation alternatives.
Below are specific TDM marketing activities:
·
Survey users and potential users of alternative
modes to determine preferences, knowledge, barriers and opportunities for
changing travel behavior and providing TDM services.
·
Targeted, personalized marketing campaigns, which identify consumers
who are most able and willing to change their travel patterns and providing
them with suitable incentives to try alternatives.
·
Educate public officials, businesses about TDM strategies they can
implement.
·
Promote benefits and changing public attitudes about alternative modes.
For example, promote alternatives modes as enjoyable, Healthy
and Prestigious.
·
Produce a Multi-Modal Access Guide that
provides concise information on how to access a particular destination by
alternative modes.
·
Make alternative modes more Affordable, with
appropriate Prices and discounts.
·
Identify and overcoming barriers to the use of alternative modes.
·
Encourage Transit ridership by making transit
service convenient and attractive.
Given adequate resources, marketing programs can significantly increase use of alternative modes and reduce automobile travel, although there are limits to what marketing can accomplish by itself. Marketing cannot change every person or every trip, and can be counterproductive if alternative modes are inadequate. For example, advertising that encourages motorists to try transit will fail if transit service is inconvenient and unpleasant to use; travelers who try it will have a bad experience, give up, and tell their friends. Similarly, a commuter who tries cycling for the first time, but has no support, will be discouraged if they find it difficult and frightening, or have an accident or mechanical problems.
Effective marketing often requires delivering different messages to different types of people, with special emphasis on people who are most ready to change. For example, potential transit markets can be divided into people who wouldn’t use it, might use it, sometimes use it, and often use it. It is generally unrealistic to shift somebody from the “wouldn’t” into the “often” category, but a transit marketing campaign can provide messages and incentives to shift travelers one category at a time, so for example, people who currently would not ride transit are encouraged to consider it; people who are already considering it are given opportunities and incentives to try it occasionally; and people who currently use it occasionally are encouraged to use it more often.
Wouldn’t => Might => Sometimes => Often
Travel patterns tend to experience regular turnover (also called churning) as people change income, jobs, homes, abilities, responsibilities and preferences. For example, during a particular year a portion of residents may naturally shift from automobile to public transit commuting, while others shift from public transit to driving, due to changes in their life conditions. Marketing programs should therefore target people when they are ready to change their travel patterns.
In most communities a portion of trips are responsive to TDM marketing. Consumer surveys indicates that a significant portion of travel is non-essential, and that a significant portion (typically 25-50%) of travelers would consider using travel alternatives and are interested in obtaining information about them. One survey found that out of 43 respondents, 19 report that they drive more than they need, and 34 report that they drive more than they want (Handy, Weston and Mokhtarian, 2005). Of course, not all of these people will eliminate all of their automobile trips, but many will change some trips if given the right combination of information, services and encouragement.
TDM Marketing programs should generally be ongoing so they provide continual support and encouragement, and respond to future opportunities and changes in individual’s travel needs and preferences. Travel patterns tend to reflect churning (continual turnover and change, sometimes in response to specific events such as changes in employment or home locations); for example, during a given year some people naturally shift from automobile to public transit, while others shift from public transit to automobile due to changes in their circumstances and preference. TDM Programs should take these natural changes into account, providing ongoing encouragement for shifts toward more efficient travel patterns.
Direct marketing programs, such as TravelSmart, are effective because they focus on the people who are ready to consider changing their travel habits, but need information and encouragement. People tend to develop established travel habits. As described by Goodwin (1997), “The traveller does not carefully and deliberately calculate anew each morning whether to go to work by car or by bus. Such deliberation is likely to occur only occasionally.” TDM marketing programs can help overcome this inertia in travel habits. Programs that present alternatives in a positive way and convince people to try them may result in long-term changes.
|
Positive Statements As
much as possible, TDM Marketing should emphasize the potential benefits from
more efficient transportation systems. For example, reduced driving and
shifts to alternative modes can provide vehicle cost savings, reduced crash
risk, and reduced stress to users. More walking and cycling provides health
benefits. They also provide community benefits, such as reduced traffic
congestion, increased safety, road and parking facility costs, and reduced
pollution. Transportation
Demand Management is not a very good marketing term, particularly since the
acronym (TDM) sounds like tedium. It reflects a planning and economic
analysis perspective, but is not well understood by the general public. So
what should we call what we do? The term Mobility Management is used
in some regions, particularly in |
People naturally tend to rationalize their current attitudes and behavior (Gilbert, 2006); TDM Marketing requires that alternatives be presented as attractive and desirable, at least compared with alternatives. TDM Marketing should offer motorists many opportunities to try alternative modes, without requiring a major commitment. For example, a program might provide transit route information and a free transit pass to people who currently commute by automobile. Walking and cycling Encouragement programs often start with a short-term event, such as bike-to-work week. Once people try alternative modes and use them occasionally, marketing can encourage them to increase their use incrementally, for example, by Ridesharing twice a week, or using a bicycle for commuting and errands for a greater portion of the year.
Market research is an important part of effective marketing. This means using surveys and other market data to better understand consumer knowledge, needs, preferences, barriers and opportunities to change travel behavior (Cao and Mokhtarian, 2005). For example, Table 1 shows results from a survey of potential rideshare users (employees with regular commute schedules who currently drive more than 5 miles to work), indicting which incentives are most likely to cause them to shift to alternative modes. Such surveys need to be preformed for specific demographic groups and geographic locations.
Table 1 Market
Survey (proprietary source)
|
What Would Help Entice You To
Rideshare? |
Portion of Respondents |
|
Personalized help finding bus times and routes |
2.9% |
|
Bike parking |
3.3% |
|
On-site food or kitchen |
4.1% |
|
Lockers/showers |
5.9% |
|
More info about alternatives |
5.9% |
|
Personalized help forming ridesharing |
6.1% |
|
Priority parking for rideshare |
6.2% |
|
On-site services |
8.1% |
|
Payment in lieu of parking |
15.6% |
|
Other |
16.3% |
|
Transportation during breaks/lunch |
16.3% |
|
Employer provided car |
17.9% |
|
More frequent bus service at site |
18.4% |
|
Flexible work schedule to meet alternative schedule |
20.2% |
|
Guaranteed Ride Home |
33.3% |
|
Financial incentive |
39.1% |
Marketing tends to be most effective when it emphasizes positive benefits to participants from using alternative modes, including stress reductions and financial savings from reduced driving, and increased enjoyment and Health from active travel modes such as walking and cycling. Some studies show that many workers place a high value on having commute alternatives (Novaco and Collier, 1994).
|
Social Marketing Social marketing
refers to community-based programs to encourage more socially desirable
behavior. Social marketing is effective at achieving behavior changes that
people generally support but find difficult to make, such as actions that
increase personal health or benefits neighbors. It helps people reconcile
their actions with their beliefs, providing integrity and pride, as well as
helping to solve specific personal and community problems. There are many successful examples of social
marketing, including increased use of seatbelts and child restraints, reduced
excessive drinking, more balanced diets and reduced tobacco consumption.
These involved a combination of education, persuasion and policy
interventions that have changed the way people act. Social marketing consists of these steps:
Successful social marketing requires listening
carefully to the audience through focus groups and surveys in order to
understand their real attitudes and concerns. It identifies the costs of
inaction and the benefits of change from users’ perspective, and helps people
overcome barriers to desirable change. A typical social marketing campaign to support
TDM might include the following actions: · Identify travelers who are
most likely to change. For example, a campaign might focus on commuters in a
particular demographic and income category who work in a particular area. · Investigate consumer
travel attitudes and preferences, potential benefits from alternative travel
options (financial savings, reduced stress, sociability and fun, healthy
exercise, community benefits such as reduced air pollution), and barriers to
change. · Based on market surveys,
develop programs that improve Transportation Options
(such as better transit services, Rideshare services,
improved walking conditions), provide incentives to users (such as Commuter Financial Incentives), and overcome barriers as
perceived by users (such as stigma associated with the use of alternative
modes). · Identify key attitudes,
such as interest in fitness or pride in helping others that can be
highlighted. For example, if personal health and fitness is a key consumer
attitude, a campaign might emphasize the health problems that result if
people continue their sedentary travel habits, and the user benefits from
more physically-active travel modes. · Develop multi-faceted
promotional materials, which may include press materials, media advertising,
brochures, flyers, posters, and other strategies to convey messages. This can
include information on: o What is available (walk,
cycle, rideshare, transit, etc.). o Why alternatives are
desirable (benefits to users and communities) o How to use alternatives
(how to cycle, rideshare or ride transit). o Encouragement to try
alternatives (“Try using transit tomorrow.”). o How to obtain support and
additional information (websites, telephone numbers, etc.). o Reinforcement and
validation to users (“When you ride transit, you help make our community a
better place to live.”). · Start with a small pilot,
improve it based on experience and feedback from users, and then expand the
program. · Continually update the
program based on participant feedback, and to keep it fresh, timely and
interesting. Try new messages and promotional materials. Resources: Novartis Foundation Social
Marketing (www.foundation.novartis.com/social_marketing.htm)
Social Marketing.Com (www.social-marketing.com) Social Marketing Institute (www.social-marketing.org) Social Marketing Network (www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hppb/socialmarketing) |
How it is Implemented
TDM marketing is usually implemented by government agencies
or non-profit organizations as part of a comprehensive TDM
Program or Commute Trip Reduction program. The Way-to-Go,
Travel Impacts
Marketing can improve the effectiveness of most individual TDM programs and strategies. A survey of commuters found that exposure to commute trip reduction program information was the single most important factor contributing to mode shifting (Weber, Nice, Lovrich, 2000). Hendricks and Joshi (2004) identified specific factors that affect CTR program effectiveness. They found that the degree of management support and the presence of an Employee Transportation Coordinator is important if a worksite is located outside a major business district, but are less critical in a CBC. Given adequate resources, marketing programs can often increase use of alternative modes by 10-25% and reduce automobile use by 5-15% (see examples described later in this chapter). One study estimates that marketing increases the effectiveness of other TDM strategies by up to 3% (Shadoff, 1996). Modarres (1993) found that the provision of information on alternative travel modes by employers was one of the most important factors contributing to mode shifting.
The most effective marketing programs promote a variety of
travel options rather than just one mode (such as ridesharing or public
transit), since this allows consumers to choose the option that best suits
their needs. For example, about half of the trips reduced by the TravelSmart
programs shifted to walking, with smaller shifts to cycling, ridesharing and
public transit (www.travelsmart.vic.gov.au).
Individual mode shifts appear small, typically consisting of just few
percentage points, but their total impacts are significant. The TravelSmart
program found that marketing programs can reduce automobile travel by 6-14%,
which is comparable in magnitude to much more expensive infrastructure
improvement programs to encourage use of alternative modes. Fujii and Taniguchi
(2006) found even larger travel reductions from “travel feedback programs” in
The travel impacts of TDM programs that rely only on marketing sometimes decline over time as participants lose interest. However, marketing that supports other TDM strategies that improve transportation choice or provide tangible incentives can have significant long-term impacts on travel behavior.
Table 2 Travel Impact Summary
|
Objective |
Rating |
Comments |
|
Reduces total traffic. |
2 |
Tends to increase TDM
effectiveness. |
|
Reduces peak period
traffic. |
2 |
“ |
|
Shifts peak to off-peak
periods. |
2 |
“ |
|
Shifts automobile travel to
alternative modes. |
2 |
“ |
|
Improves access, reduces
the need for travel. |
2 |
“ |
|
Increased ridesharing. |
2 |
“ |
|
Increased public transit. |
2 |
“ |
|
Increased cycling. |
2 |
“ |
|
Increased walking. |
2 |
“ |
|
Increased Telework. |
2 |
“ |
|
Reduced freight traffic. |
2 |
“ |
Rating from 3 (very
beneficial) to –3 (very harmful). A 0 indicates no impact or mixed impacts.
Benefits And Costs
Marketing provides a foundation for specific TDM policies, programs and strategies. Benefits include increased understanding and appreciation of TDM, increased public support for TDM strategies, and increased effectiveness of TDM efforts. Costs are primarily associated with program expenses. Actual benefits, costs and effectiveness vary depending on circumstances, program design and its effectiveness. A study by Ker (2003) found that marketing programs typically provide financial paybacks of 1.0 years or less (plus additional benefits to society), indicating an excellent return on investment.
Table 3 Benefit Summary
|
Objective |
Rating |
Comments |
|
Congestion Reduction |
2 |
Tends to increase TDM
effectiveness. |
|
Road & Parking Savings |
2 |
“ |
|
Consumer Savings |
2 |
“ |
|
Transport Choice |
2 |
“ |
|
Road Safety |
2 |
“ |
|
Environmental Protection |
2 |
“ |
|
Efficient Land Use |
2 |
“ |
|
Community Livability |
2 |
“ |
Rating from 3 (very beneficial) to –3 (very harmful). A 0 indicates no impact or mixed impacts.
Equity Impacts
TDM marketing can help increase equity by increasing public knowledge and acceptance of transportation alternatives, and creating more effective TDM programs. This tends to benefit lower-income and transportation disadvantaged people by improving their mobility options, increasing access for non-drivers, and reducing the stigma often associated with alternative modes. Actual equity impacts vary depending on circumstances and program design.
Table 4 Equity Summary
|
Criteria |
Rating |
Comments |
|
Treats everybody equally. |
1 |
Generally benefits all groups. |
|
Individuals bear the costs
they impose. |
-1 |
Requires subsidy. |
|
Progressive with respect to
income. |
2 |
Can improve travel choice
and reduce stigma associated with alternative modes. |
|
Benefits transportation
disadvantaged. |
2 |
Can improve travel choice
and reduce stigma associated with alternative modes. |
|
Improves basic mobility. |
0 |
No significant impact. |
Rating from 3 (very
beneficial) to –3 (very harmful). A 0 indicates no impact or mixed impacts.
Applications
Can be implemented as part of any TDM program.
Table 5 Application Summary
|
Geographic |
Rating |
Organization |
Rating |
|
Large urban region. |
3 |
Federal government. |
2 |
|
High-density, urban. |
3 |
State/provincial
government. |
2 |
|
Medium-density,
urban/suburban. |
3 |
Regional government. |
3 |
|
Town. |
3 |
Municipal/local government. |
3 |
|
Low-density, rural. |
2 |
Business Associations/TMA. |
3 |
|
Commercial center. |
3 |
Individual business. |
3 |
|
Residential neighborhood. |
2 |
Developer. |
2 |
|
Resort/recreation area. |
3 |
Neighborhood association. |
2 |
|
|
|
Campus. |
3 |
Ratings range from 0 (not
appropriate) to 3 (very appropriate).
Category
TDM Program Support
Relationships With Other TDM Strategies
Effective marketing can increase the acceptability and effectiveness of most TDM strategies. It is often a component of TDM Programs, Commute Trip Reduction, Transportation Management Associations, Tourist Transport Management, Campus Transport Management and Multi-Modal Access Guides. It is important to incorporate Evaluation into marketing efforts.
|
A
farmer sitting on his front porch patiently watches a city slicker driving
his sports car down the dirt road, throwing up a tail of dust. A little
latter he watches the same car zoom pass the other direction, and later still
the car passes by again, then screeches to a stop, engulfing car, yard and
porch in a dust cloud. The driver, clearly exasperated at being lost, rolls
down his window and yells to the farmer, “How do I get to Midville?” The
farmer thinks it over, and after the dust begins to settle finally replies,
“I’m afraid ya can’t get there from here.” |
Stakeholders
Virtually all stakeholders can have a role in marketing, including federal, state, provincial, regional and local agencies, Transportation Management Associations and business associations, individual businesses, and non-governmental organizations.
Barriers To Implementation
Marketing programs depend primarily on support and funding from agencies or businesses.
Best Practices
References and organizations listed below provide specific information on how to develop successful TDM marketing programs. IOLT, 2001 provides recommendations for providing transportation information through the Internet. Below are some general suggestions.
· Marketing programs should be
developed in cooperation with all major stakeholders, including government
agencies, business organizations, non-profit organizations, and participant
groups.
· Marketing should provide a
clear and consistent message.
· Marketing should emphasize
positive benefits to participants, including increased enjoyment and health.
· Give people many chances to
try alternative modes. For example, a marketing program may offer a free
transit pass and appropriate route information to commuters who currently
drive, so they have an opportunity to try transit.
· Marketing should offer
useful information and resources (i.e., contacts for transit, rideshare, and
carshare services, cycling safety tips, etc.).
· Focus on achievable,
incremental changes. For example, rather than expecting commuters to shift
completely from driving to alternative modes, encourage them to use alternative
modes one or two days a week, and then to increase this over time.
· Marketing should only be
implemented after TDM programs and services are operating effectively (it is
counterproductive to promote TDM programs that give consumers an unsatisfactory
experience, such as ineffective rideshare matching services).
· Potential users should be
surveyed regularly to identify their needs and preferences, to evaluate the
acceptance and effectiveness of marketing efforts, and to identify ways to
improve marketing.
· All marketing materials
should be reviewed by marketing specialists.
· Program Evaluation
should be incorporated into marketing efforts.
|
Marketing Public Transit - Peter Everett,
Professor, Marketers of public transit have made heroic efforts to
stem ridership loss. Surprisingly, among all the marketing variables tried,
the one least used is the market position of “status”. Yet clear positioning
is one of the prime ways a product or service can distinguish itself from the
competition and motivate purchases. |
Examples and Case Studies
DfT (2007) provides a comprehensive review of Personal Travel Planning case studies.
TravelWise Website (www.rmoc.on.ca/travelwise)
The
Ottawa-Carleton Region established the TravelWise website to provide a
one-stop, on-line source for complete information about walking, cycling,
carpooling, public transit and more. TravelWise is home base for the Region’s
transportation demand management (TDM) program. The site will have an online
Cycling Map on-line, information to help drivers reduce their costs and environmental
impacts, a “TravelWise at Work” section will focus on workplace commuting, and
“TravelWise at School” will be a local resource for International Walk to
School Day. The TravelWise web site was produced by the Mobility Management
Branch of the Region’s Environment and Transportation Department.
TravelSmart, Perth
TravelSmart
is a community-based program that encourages people to use alternatives to
travelling in their private car. It provides information, motivation and skills
to help people choose alternatives to driving for personal travel. This is done
through a programme called Individualised Marketing that reaches households
through schools, businesses, local government and major destinations that run
their own TravelSmart programs. TravelSmart also forms partnerships with
environmental, health, cycling organizations and other organizations that have
an interest in supporting travel alternatives.
The Perth Metropolitan Transport Strategy targets a 35% reduction in single-occupant-vehicle trips over the next 30 years. TravelSmart is a significant part of that strategy. TravelSmart research indicates that travellers have alternatives to driving for about 45% of all personal trips. Increasing the portion of these trips made by environmentally-friendly modes (walking, cycling, transit and tele-access) from 10% to 25% would achieve the Transport Strategy targets.
The
Individualised Marketing program started with a pilot project in
This
project was funded from capital funds under the concept of a “non-built”
solution, based on Least Cost planning principles. It
achieves an equal or better transportation benefits as an investment in
physical infrastructure improvements. The Western Australian Department of
Transport plans to expand the program to the entire city of
|
INSIDE TRACK; How to
think people out of their vehicles When 8,000 It sounds like a transport
dream. A cheap and effective scheme that could cut traffic by 10 per cent or
more within months. But in The concept, called
“individualised marketing”, is simple. Households are contacted and offered
advice about the journeys they make. If they are interested, they can get
information and personalised timetables by post or a telephone hotline, or a
home visit from a consultant who analyses the trips they make and suggests
alternatives to the car. Socialdata (www.socialdata.de), a German-based consultancy, claims to have
developed the idea and spent 10 years looking for a guinea-pig before the
government of Last year, The south Socialdata found that only
20% of journeys in “There’s an alternative
there,” says Mr. Brog, pointing outside to buses, cycle lanes and Tube
stations, “but not there,” he says, jabbing at his head. “Transport planners
want to fix that (pointing out of the window again) but we’d say it’s much
easier to fix the head.” It sounds almost too good
to be true, which raises the question of why more towns, cities and regions
are not pursuing the idea. As it stands, However, before the
transport scheme can spread, deep-rooted cultural and practical barriers will
need to be overcome in many countries. Perhaps the biggest perceived threat,
especially among politicians being asked to fund such projects, is a backlash
from motorists who may see the scheme as “anti-car”. But in “As soon as people hear
what I do at a party they start saying ‘Do you know how far I have to travel
to work? Do you know I have to make interchange four times?’ and so on,” says
Mr. Brog. “I say, if that’s the case, use your car. But let’s look at where
else you can use public transport.” More subtly, another
barrier is the long-standing assumption by transport engineers and planners
that putting on more services and building new infrastructure is the solution
to all problems. And the “boys with toys” approach has always chimed with the
political attraction of opening new railways and roads. Individualised marketing
can be complementary to investing in infrastructure, says Mr. Brog. But he
hopes that, as more successful trials roll in, the balance will shift.
Individualised marketing is more cost-effective, he believes. “We can better
them hands down every time,” he insists. Doubters should know that |
Brisbane
A
The
Following
completion of a Before Travel Survey (including a survey of a control group),
412 households were contacted and asked if they would like to find out more
information on how they could meet some of their travel needs via sustainable
modes. Of those contacted 29 percent were uninterested, 47 percent were
interested, 16 percent already used sustainable modes but were interested in
receiving more information and 8 percent were existing users and were
uninterested in further information.
The
motivation phase involved detailed discussions with those who requested further
information to identify problems they had and their travel needs. A service
sheet allowed householders to select the exact information they wanted to
receive.
In
the information phase only the material specifically ordered was provided and
all material was hand delivered. No general information, marketing or media
campaigns on sustainable modes or their benefits were carried out in the pilot
area at the same time as the trial was running.
The
convincing phase involved home visits to discuss in detail the possible mode
changes with those who had indicated the need for this level of support. In
addition, a small number of households who were interested in swapping to a
sustainable mode and did not already use public transport were given a one
month system experience ticket for bus or rail.
The
final phase, evaluation, involved another travel survey, again including the
control group. The results indicated there had been a 10 percent reduction in
vehicle trips, which roughly equates to one return trip per week per person by
either public transport, walking or cycling.
The
approximate benefit to cost ratio of 20:1 covered the benefits of reduced road
congestion and car operating costs and, to a lesser extent, environmental
externalities and public transport revenue. A number of other benefits would be
particularly noticeable if IndiMark was implemented on a larger scale. A 10
percent reduction in congestion would reduce travel times by greater than 10
percent during peak times. There would be a reduced need for capital and
maintenance expenditure on new and widened road corridors, as well as reduced
private expenditure on fuel. Socially, a 10 percent reduction in crash rates
and improvements in health and fitness due to exercise could be expected.
Finally, environmentally, the reduced travel demand and consequent reduction in
fuel use and exhaust pollutants would lead to improvements in local and
regional air quality and reductions in greenhouse gas emissions and noise.
Fremantle Travel Smart Program (www.dpi.wa.gov.au/travelsmart)
As a result of participating
in the Western Australia Travel Smart program, Fremantle residents have reduced
the number of car trips by 12% and the number of kilometres by 14%. They also
increased the number of walking trips by 25%, cycling trips by 38%, and public
transit trips by 13%.
TravelSmart, Portland
The
City of
The
before travel survey provided detailed information about travel behavior in the
pilot area. There was a 65% response rate to a mail-back travel diary sent to
1,200 randomly selected households. The survey found that 64% of the trips in
the target area are by people driving alone in their cars, 10% are walking, 5%
are public transit, and 1% are bike trips. The remaining 19% are trips by
passengers in cars. Many people are surprised that work trips make up such a
small percentage of overall trips. Work trips and work related trips make up
only 25% of all trips on the test pilot area. The large majority of people’s
trips are for shopping or for leisure activities-56%. This is a large number of
trips that allow some flexibility in choosing to walk, bike or use transit.
Most interesting is trip distance. Of all trips from Multnomah Hillsdale, 12% are less than a half mile and 22% are less than one mile. Almost half of all trips (46%) are less than 3 miles. Car trips account for 39% of all trips under 3 miles and 15% under one mile. Most people are willing to walk a half-mile and many are willing to walk a mile. There is clearly a potential for shifting some of these car trips to walking or cycling.
The
first 600 households responding to the baseline travel survey were included in
the next phase, Individualized Marketing. These households were segmented based
upon their responses. About 41% of SW Portlanders were interested in finding
out more about transportation options. They received the information they
needed, either by mail, telephone, or personal at-home visits.
People already using environmentally friendly modes (26%) were given a small
reward. The remaining 33% who didn’t want to participate weren’t contacted
again. The segmentation closely matches that of households in the
Table 6 Survey Results
|
|
Households Total |
Percentages |
|
“Interested” |
246 |
41% |
|
“Already Using Alternatives” |
156 |
26% |
|
“Not Interested” |
198 |
33% |
|
HH Total |
600 |
100% |
This
program resulted in 9% less car travel and an 8% increase in walking, cycling,
and public transit. These figures represent a 12% reduction in vehicle miles
traveled. Residents’ changes in travel behavior have been shown to be sustained
one year after the initial marketing efforts. Furthermore the data indicated
that these results were achieved without affecting people's overall mobility in
terms of their activities outside the home, travel time and number of trips per
day.
When
compared to other pilot projects using individualized marketing techniques in
Europe and
Car Smart Communities (www.cityofseattle.net/carsmart)
Car Smart Communities encourages neighborhood projects that help residents use cars less often for errands and other personal and family trips. The program provides a variety of resources and incentives to encourage less automobile-dependent communities and lifestyles.
Seattle Way-To-Go Household Car Reduction Program (www.cityofseattle.net/waytogo)
Way
to Go, Seattle
is a new initiative to show people they can save money and make their communities
more livable by making more conscious transportation choices, just as they do
now with recycling and water conservation.
During
summer 2001, 23
“We
can all take small steps to improve our transportation system,” said Mayor Paul
Schell. “These families have proven that we can make choices about how to get
around and enjoy spending less time in our cars.”
All
the families in the study saved money, and most saved about $64 per week. The
all found they could get around on transit, walking, bicycling and taking taxis
when needed for about $21 a week, far less than the $85 per week cost of an
average second car. Most families tell us they will continue to take the bus or
ride their bike, and think about whether they need to drive to where they want
to go.
“We
hope more people will see they don’t need that extra car,” said Jamae Hoffman,
project manager. “Families making smart decisions about transportation can cut
down on vehicle trips, congestion, gasoline use and, of course, air pollution.”
The
best experience for Richard Kielbowitz and Linda Lawson of the Hawthorne Hills
neighborhood was “watching the price of gas rise for other people”. “When we
heard reports of traffic jams, we counted our blessings that we were not caught
up in them,” they said. After participating in the program, Kielbowitz and
Lawson sold their second car.
“Before
I would have driven north for movies and shopping. Now, I head downtown on the
bus,” said Lori Goodwin of the Queen Anne neighborhood. “It was a fun
experience. Same movies, same shopping, but it was wonderful not to have to
deal with a huge parking lot.”
The
One-Less-Car Study was conducted in three rounds during 2000, 2001, and 2002,
and engaged a total of 86
The
One-Less-Car Demonstration Study online Replicability Package (www.seattle.gov/waytogo/replicabilitypackage.htm)
has all that is needed to conduct a study and start realizing the benefits of
smarter transportation choices. The package contains the reports and products
that will allow you to understand the rationale, methods, and outcomes of the
"One-Less-Car" Project, including data analysis reports, all the
worksheets and forms, and the Final Report with a step-by-step narrative of how
Seattle did it. Over twenty cities and organizations have requested information
on the study and how to start their own version.
The
One-Less-Car Demonstration Study is part of the Way to Go,
Commuter Choice Marketing Program (www.commuterchoice.com)
Commuter
Choice is a
· Community-wide marketing
& education campaigns.
· Employer materials promoting
commuting choices and benefits.
· Educational materials
relating to the costs and benefits of commuting choices.
· Promotional events or
programs to try commuting choices.
· Testimonials from satisfied
customers.
Go For Green (www.goforgreen.ca/home_e.html)
Go
for Green is a national non-profit, charitable organization encouraging
Canadians to pursue healthy, outdoor physical activities while being good
environmental citizens. It encourages active transportation (walking and
cycling). It sponsors the Commuter Challenge (see below) and school transport
management programs. Go For Green provides information and materials, including
newsletters, report, case studies and merchandize (logo shirts and hats).
Commuter Challenge (www.commuterchallenge.ca)
The
Commuter Challenge is a week-long, friendly competition between Canadian cities
to see which can cut its air pollution the most by using active and/or
sustainable modes of transport. Participants commitment to walk, jog, cycle or
in-line skate (active transportation) and/or bus, carpool or telework during
Environment Week (June 2-8, 2002). With this information, the Commuter
Challenge team determines the amount of air pollution each participant reduced
using an Environment Canada pollution model that calculates the number of
kilograms of pollution produced by automobile commuting. The program emphasizes
the following benefits of sustainable transportation.
· For Exercise! When you
commute using active transportation, such as walking or cycling, you
incorporate regular exercise into your daily life.
· For Your Health! Walking,
in-line skating, jogging, and cycling exposes you to less pollution than the
average car driver. Since drivers sit in traffic and are closer to car exhaust
fumes, they are exposed to 10x more air pollution than the average pedestrian
or cyclist.
· For Your Wallet! The
Canadian Automobile Association reports that the average yearly cost to operate
a car is over $6,000! A bus pass for a year, however, costs about $700, and a
brand new bicycle may cost as little as $200.
· For the Environment! The
average car produces about 4 tonnes of air pollution each year. It takes about
130 trees to produce the amount of oxygen needed to combat the pollution that
one car produces. Carbon dioxide is the single biggest pollutant that comes
from automobiles, and carbon dioxide makes up the majority of greenhouse gases.
Using fewer cars conserves our natural habitat and decreases the demand for new
roads and parking lots.
· For Your Community! Using
active and sustainable transportation makes your community safer, especially
for children, youth, and seniors, by reducing the risk of vehicle-pedestrian
accidents. People who use active and sustainable transportation also tend to
support local businesses by shopping locally.
· To Reduce the Effects of
Climate Change! Greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide, get trapped in the
planet’s atmosphere, causing the Earth’s temperature to rise. When you reduce
greenhouse gas emissions by using active and sustainable transportation, you
reduce the effects of climate change.
Green Travel Incentives (www.travelsmart.vic.gov.au)
The
City of
In addition, there have
already been twenty six $100 gift vouchers awarded to staff who have reached
their points tally. Of those staff registered, 40% previously came to work in a
single occupant vehicle all of the time. This proportion of participants have
since completed 900 green travel trips and travelled 9,981 kilometres. Attached
to the software that administers the incentive program is a car pool component
where registered participants can search for travel partners in their nearby
area. Staff not registered on the system can still view the carpool map to see
who lives around their area and perhaps approach them informally.
Individualized Marketing in U.S.Cities (www.fta.dot.gov/initiatives_tech_assistance/technology/15791_ENG_HTML.htm)
The US Federal Transit Administration commissioned individualized marketing pilot projects in four US cities (Bellingham, Washington State; Sacramento city, California; Durham, North Carolina and Cleveland, Ohio) to test the effectiveness of individualised marketing in increasing public transport use. These cities were chosen because each exhibited different socio-demographic and cultural profiles, urban densities, population sizes, and public transport patronage trends. Public transport use within targeted communities increased between 14% to 43%. The number of walking and cycling trips also rose across each of the four target communities. When averaged across the four pilots, participants drove 4.5% less leading to an average 6.75% reduction in vehicle miles travelled. All results are based on comparison with a control population.
Table 7 Travel Changes From Marketing Program
in
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Car (as driver) |
-8% |
-2% |
-7% |
-4% |
|
Car (as passenger) |
10% |
1% |
7% |
5% |
|
Walking |
35% |
15% |
15% |
13% |
|
Cycling |
13% |
30% |
25% |
22% |
|
Public Transit |
14% |
43% |
35% |
26% |
|
Vehicle miles reduced |
4% |
4% |
11% |
8% |
Washington State
The Smart Moves campaign is
an annual event during the Month of April to promote alternative transportation
in the
Smart Moves has grown over
the years to include a variety of community organizations and public agencies
across
Marketing Effective Speed (Tranter
and May, 2005)
Researchers Tranter and May
(2005) examine the potential use of the effective speed concept to stimulate
travel behaviour change. Effective speed
reflects the total time devoted to a particular form of transport, including
time actually devoted to travel and time devoted to earning money to pay for
it. Effective speed analysis recognizes that faster but more costly modes, such
as driving, are sometimes less time efficient overall. Effective speed could
have useful applications in mobility management marketing to help people to
reconsider the perceived advantages of automobile travel over slower but lower
cost modes.
Table 8 indicates the
estimated effective speed of various vehicles. This analysis indicates that
public transit and cycling often have higher effective speeds than driving,
particularly for more costly automobiles. Of course, actual costs will vary
depending on individual factors, including actual income, costs, travel speeds
and annual mileage.
Table 8 Effective Speed (Tranter
and May, 2005)
|
|
Luxury Car |
Sport Utility Vehicle |
Average Car |
Economy Car |
Public Transit |
Bicycle |
|
Annualized costs (Aus$) |
$14,161 |
$17,367 |
$9,753 |
$5,857 |
$966 |
$500 |
|
Hours worked to pay costs* |
644 |
790 |
444 |
266 |
44 |
23 |
|
Average travel speed (km/hr) |
45 |
45 |
45 |
45 |
2 |
20 |
|
Hours of travel time |
333 |
333 |
333 |
333 |
600 |
750 |
|
Support activity time (walking to vehicle, maintenance, etc.) |
51 |
51 |
50 |
51 |
60 |
55 |
|
Total time |
1,028 |
1,174 |
827 |
650 |
704 |
828 |
|
Effective speed (km/hr) |
14.6 |
12.8 |
18.1 |
23.1 |
21.3 |
18.1 |
This table compares the estimated effective speed of various vehicles. Lower-speed modes, such as public transit and cycling, often have higher effective speeds than driving.
*
Assumes $40,100 annual income.
A coordinated and integrated
communications campaign could optimise the promotion of the effective speed
idea. This would involve in part, an extended media program over a period of
several years in order to achieve changes in people’s perceptions. Such a
campaign would be part of a package encompassing social marketing and the
expansion of travel behaviour change programs, leadership from politicians, and
the presence of appropriate price signals.
Personal Travel Planning (ITP,2007)
Personal Travel
Planning (PTP) is an approach to delivering targeted information directly to
travellers, to help them make sustainable travel choices. It seeks to overcome
habitual use of the car, enabling more journeys to be made on foot, bike, bus,
train or in shared cars. It can also seek to discourage unnecessary travel,
through the provision of local or site-specific information. Within the
Vanpool Marketing Plan (York and
David Fabricatore, 2003)
The
Puget Sound region has some of the most successful vanpool programs in
- Increased flexibility, for example,
- allow commuters to vanpool two or three days a
week, rather than every day
- allow unscheduled use as long as a van has extra
space, such as a commuter who misses their regular 5:30 van may ride in a
later van.
- Empty seat subsidies (temporarily paying a
share of costs if a vanpool has less than six riders).
- Fare subsidies by employers or transit agencies
(currently, transit commuting is often subsidized, but similar trips by
vanpools are not).
- Targeted, direct Marketing,
for example, calling households in a particular suburb with an offer of
one month’s free vanpooling to encourage area commuters to try the
service.
- HOV Priority measures,
such as HOV lanes and preferred parking spaces.
- Premium service options, such as extra
high-quality vans with bucket seats, workstations (fold-down tables with
electric power so vanpoolers can work while commuting), and complementary
newspapers and drinks for vanpoolers who pay an extra fee.
- Pay-As-You-Drive Vehicle
Insurance, Parking Cash Out and Road Pricing, which give financial rewards to
commuters who shift to ridesharing.
- Vanpools scheduled to transfer to transit service
or other vanpools.
- Rent cars for carpools the same as vans are
rented for vanpool use. This provides an option for groups of two to five
who want to rideshare if none have a suitable vehicle, including vanpools
that lose members.
Young People Less Interested in
Driving
There is evidence that young
urban people place less importance on personal vehicle ownership and use than
in the past, and so may be more amenable to mobility management marketing
programs. Computers and mobile telephones may be displacing automobiles as
objects of status, entertainment and social interaction.
According to the Wall Street Journal (29 February 2008),
2007 survey of 1,700 young Japanese by the Nihon Keizai Shimbun, Japan's
biggest business newspaper found that only 25% of Japanese men in their 20s
wanted a car, down from 48% in 2000 (http://s.wsj.net/article/SB120422248421700325.html).
The Japanese automobile manufacturers’ association found that men 29 years old
and younger made up 11% of Japanese drivers in 2005, roughly half the size of
that group in 1993.
According to an article in
the Sacramento Bee (4 March 2008), the
portion of California 16-year-olds who obtained a drivers license declined form
22% in 1996 to 14% in 2006, and for 17-year-olds the rate declined from 40% to
33% during this period, and by age 18, almost half still had no license in 2006
(www.sacbee.com/101/story/757826.html).
Similar trends are occurring nationwide.
Cycling Survey (Gaterslbgen and
Appleton, 2007)
A survey of British adults
different stages in people’s willingness to cycle for transportation, including
precontemplation (they wound not consider it), contemplation (they would
consider it, but do not current do it), prepared for action (they occasionally
do it), action (they frequently do it) and maintenance (the always do it). This
study suggests that different marketing strategies are suitable for different
audiences: some people should be encouraged to consider cycling, while others
should be encouraged to actually do it, or do it more frequently. The study indicates
that is it important to portray cycling as a normal activity for all types of
people (not just fit young men). It also recommends the expansion of school
cycling programs to encourage children to develop the habit of cycling for
transportation.
TravelSMART Communities Program
(Ampt, 2003)
A program in
The program involves the following activities:
- Project team gets to know the area –
meeting people, understanding local demographics, personalized
interactions with householders.
- Engaging households through direct
contact, always a conversation to establish level of frustration with the
car.
- Travel Blending – computer analyzed 7-day
travel diary highlighting efficient travel and giving customized
suggestions to achieve personal goals (save money, time, environment).
- Journey Plans – personalized plans for
individuals who wanted to try a new mode but didn’t know how (bike and
walking paths, bus schedules and far information, etc.).
- Local Activity Guide – info on area
activities.
- General information packet – leaflet for
each of the main reasons people want to change.
- Loan a Bike – borrow a bike fore 2 weeks
to determine if they wanted to buy a bike.
- Children’s activity pages – makes travel
behavior a topic of conversation.
- Ideas tool – talking through new scenarios
and getting commitment to try something new.
- Congratulations – some people thought they
already traveled efficiently so all the general information leaflets were
sent to them to pass out to friends and neighbors.
Travel Market Segmentation (PRR,
2004)
A
- Employer or school provided financial
incentive for using alternative travel modes.
- Ability to work at home one day per week.
- Guaranteed ride home from work in
emergencies.
- Transit passes sold at a reduced rate,
such as $50 per year.
- More express buses.
- Shelters at bus stops.
- Ability to use transit passes for
discounts at local shops.
Specifically,
motivators to use alternative travel modes or use them more often included:
- Parking price and convenience.
- Higher gas prices
- Traffic congestion.
- Reduced stress from not driving alone.
- Enjoyment of traveling with others.
Reducing Car Use by Morning Commuters (Pinnacle Research, 2004)
A research programme
investigated factors that can influence commuting patterns to work or schools,
including chauffeuring children to school. Our work on the latter led to a
separate research programme trialing Walking School Bus networks in four
schools. The trial resulted in over 10% of the schools’ population becoming
involved in walking school buses and generated significant interest in the
concept of networks in
This programme also designed
and administered a sophisticated stated preference questionnaire to car drivers
in
- Implementing a $5 or $10 toll ($2.50 and $5 in
- Implementing a 10¢ or 30¢ per kilometre vehicle
registration surcharge.
- a $5 or $10 surcharge on public car parking
buildings ($2.50 and $5 in
- Implementing short term (P<120) on-street
parking within .5 or 1.5 kilometres of the work place.
- Increasing on-street parking charges to $2.50 or
$5 per hour ($1.25 and $2.50 per hour in
- Improved frequency of passenger transport
services, either in the “peak” periods or “off-peak”.
- Improved / shortened trip times for passenger
transport and high-occupancy vehicles.
- Reduced passenger transport fares by 25% or 50%.
- Improved routing of passenger transport services.
- Improved cycle lane availability along 50% or
100% of the route to work / place of study.
From the above information
and the contextual data we collected, we have developed “profiles” of different
mode users, identifying the characteristics of those car drivers most likely to
switch to using passenger transport, being car passengers, car pooling or other
modes (e.g. walking or cycling). We have also identified perceptual barriers to
using passenger transport in particular and “concrete” barriers to mode
switching generally. We also collected data on peoples’ attitudes and ability
to work a “compressed” work week and to “telecommute” (work from home) one or
more days per week. We found 23% of respondents were receptive to these
concepts. Our survey also gathered information about car drivers' attitudes
towards their cars, passenger transport, ride sharing (car pooling), and
cycling.
Building Community Support For
Public Transit
The report, Understanding How to Motivate Communities to
Support and Ride Public Transportation (TRB, 2008) identifies ways to
enhance the public image and increase community support for public
transportation. It examines the perceptions, misperceptions, and use of public
transit, and the extent to which these affect support. It identifies methods
used by other industries (comparable to public transportation) to enhance their
public image and to motivate support for their products and services. It
recommends appropriate communication strategies, campaigns, and platforms for
motivating individuals to action in support of public transportation, as well
as ways to execute those communication strategies, campaigns, and platforms.
Whatcom Smart Trips (www.whatcomsmarttrips.org)
Whatcom Smart Trips is a partnership between local government, public agencies, employers,
and schools to promote walking, bicycling, ridesharing and public transport
that substitutes for automobile travel. The organization provides information
and support services, such as a Guaranteed Ride Home. Participants
record their “smart trips” at the organization website, which qualifies them
for discount cards and prizes.
Environment Canada
Clean Air Day (CAD) was
proclaimed by the Government of Canada to increase public awareness and action
on two key environmental priorities, clean air and climate change. It is part of Canadian Environment Week
which was created to promote and to celebrate activities that care and nurture
our environmental legacy.
Clean Air Day builds on a
tradition of community activities that target environment, health and
transportation issues during the months of May and June. In fact, the Day was
declared by the Government of Canada in response to a request made by several
of these community organizations. Clean Air Day, as part of Environment Week,
is very much a grassroots event relying on strong partnerships with all sectors
of society. Clean Air Day and Environment Week are about all of us, as
individuals and as members of our communities, making choices that help create
a cleaner, safer world for ourselves, our families and the next generation.
Vancouver
TravelSmart Program (www.tc.gc.ca/Programs/Environment/utsp/travelsmart.htm)
TravelSmart is an innovative personal
transportation marketing program that encourages people to change their
personal travel behaviour and increase their use of more sustainable travel
modes (i.e. public transit, ridesharing, bicycling and walking) through a
combination of personalized information, incentives and rewards.
It
was piloted in six neighbourhoods located in the inner, middle and outer rings
of the
The
13 month pilot project ended in November 2006 with more than 600 people
participating through all of the stages in each of the six pilot communities.
Program results indicate that use of more sustainable modes of transportation
increased substantially with TravelSmart participants. Walking and public
transit use increased by 9% and 12%, respectively, while car trips declined by
8%.
Survey Indicates Declining Delight
In Driving (Pew, 2006)
A 2006 survey found a decline
in the portion of motorists who like to drive or consider their vehicles
special, and increased frustration with traffic problems. Although 69% of
American drivers say they like to drive, this is down from 79% in a 1991 Gallup
survey, and just 23% say they consider their car "something special --
more than just a way to get around," barely half of the 43% who felt this
way in 1991. These results suggest that many motorists would consider changing
mode for a portion of their travel, particularly if alternative modes can
provide convenient and comfortable service under congested conditions.
Clean Air Commute, Pollution Probe (www.pollutionprobe.org).
The
Clean Air Campaign is a public education and awareness component of Pollution
Probe’s comprehensive Air Programme. Each June since 1993 Pollution Probe has
held the campaign to bring the clean air message to hundreds of workplaces
across the Greater Toronto Area (GTA). The campaign is Pollution Probe’s most
visible forum to inform the public and policy-makers about the human health
risks associated with smog and to promote practical air quality solutions. The
focus of the month-long campaign is to bring individuals to action against smog
by promoting alternatives to driving alone. The main event of the Clean Air
Campaign is the week-long Clean Air Commute.
Every
year, Pollution Probe invites hundreds of workplaces in the Greater Toronto
Area to participate in our annual Clean Air Commute. A record number of 145
workplaces and 8,000 employees helped to remove over 286 tonnes of pollutants
from our atmosphere during days in June 2002. How? They simply left their cars
at home for one week (unless they were carpooling) and took cleaner modes of
transportation to and from work. Pollution Probe provides a variety of
materials, including brochures and posters, to support the campaign.
Clean
Air Commute is a week of friendly competition where participants learn about
vehicle emissions, smog and related health issues in the spirit of a fun
competition. Personal “diary cards” are distributed to individuals to fill out
during the week indicating how they got to
work. By filling out the distance in kilometres from their home to
workplace on the diary cards, employees are able to calculate the actual weight
of the major smog pollutants that they kept out of the air by not driving alone
to work each day. The greenhouse gas CO2 is also figured into the calculations.
Following the event, these diary cards are used to calculate the workplaces percentage
of participation and as entry forms for prize draws to reward the participants.
|
Two
shoe salespeople were dispatched by their company to a remote village. In a
few days the head office receives telegrams from each. One
reads “Let me return home – no one here wears shoes!” The
other reads “Send more inventory – no one here owns shoes!” |
References And Resources For More Information
ACT (2001), Transportation Demand Management Tool Kit, Association for Commuter Transportation (www.actweb.org).
AIGA (2005), Symbol Signs, American Institute of Graphic Arts (www.aiga.org/content.cfm?ContentAlias=symbolsigns). Provides a list of 50 standard symbols for use in buildings, on streets, in transportation terminals, and other locations were people require wayfinding directions.
Katie Alvord (2000), Divorce Your Car; Ending The Love Affair With The Automobile, New Society Publishing (www.newsociety.com).
Elizabeth Ampt (2003), Understanding Voluntary Travel Behaviour Change, presented at the 26th Australasian Transport Research Forum, TravelSmart Program (www.travelsmart.vic.gov.au); at www.travelsmart.vic.gov.au/doi/doielect.nsf/2a6bd98dee287482ca256915001cff0c/dc3cec6953c3cf004a256dc000813e7c/$FILE/Understanding%20voluntary%20travel%20behaviour%20change.pdf.
Jillian Anablek,
Association for Commuter Transportation (www.actweb.org) is a non-profit organization supporting TDM programs.
Best Workplaces for Commuters (www.bwc.gov) is a program sponsored by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S. Department of Transportation to recognizes employers and worksites that provide outstanding commuter benefits. The website has a variety of marketing resources, including Marketing Commuter Benefits to Employees (www.bwc.gov/pdf/05_marketing_5.pdf).
BTW (2004), A Behaviour Change Model for Bike To Work Week Campaigns,
Victoria Bike To Work Society (www.biketoworkvictoria.ca). This proposal summarizes the success of past regional Bike to Work campaigns and proposes a significant expansion to increase their total benefits.
Sally
Alasdair Cain (2004), Design Elements Of Effective Transit Information Materials, National Center for Transit Research (www.nctr.usf.edu) for the Florida Department of Transportation; at www.nctr.usf.edu/pdf/527-12.pdf.
Xinyu Cao and Patricia L. Mokhtarian (2005), “How Do Individuals Adapt Their Personal Travel? Objective and Subjective Influences on the Consideration of Travel-related Strategies for San Francisco Bay Area Commuters,” Transport Policy, Vol. 12, No. 4 (www.elsevier.com/locate/transpol), July 2005, pp. 291-302.
Center for Urban
Transportation Research (http://cutr.eng.usf.edu)
provides TDM materials and classes and publishes TMA Clearinghouse Quarterly.
Community Based Social Marketing Website (www.cbsm.com), provides information on social marketing techniques and resources.
Commuter Choice Program (www.epa.gov/oms/traq), provides information, materials and incentives for developing employee commute trip reduction programs.
Cutting Your Car Use Website (www.cuttingyourcaruse.co.uk) provides information on ways that individuals can reduce personal automobile use.
DfT (2007), Making Personal Travel Planning Work: Research Report, Department for Transport (www.dft.gov.uk); at www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/sustainable/travelplans/ptp/makingptpworkresearch.
DOT
(2002), A Review of the
Effectiveness of Personlised Journey Planning Techniques, Local Transport, UK Department
for Transport (www.local-transport.dft.gov.uk).
Rebecca Elmore-Yalch (1998), Using Market Segmentation to Increase Transit Ridership, Transit Cooperative Research Program Report 36, TRB (www.trb.org).
EV (2003), Urban Tripper: Max.Attitudue*Min.Damage, Environment Victoria (www.envict.org.au). Interactive CD targeting young adults provides information and encouragement to reduce automobile travel.
Peter Everett and Lucie Ozanne (1993), “Marketing Theory and Urban Transportation Policy,” Transportation Research Record 1402, TRB (www.trb.org), pp. 51-56.
Carolyn Fallon, Charles Sullivan and David A. Hensher (2004), “Constraints Affecting Mode Choices By Morning Car Commuters,” Transport Policy, Vol. 11, No. 1 (www.elsevier.com/locate/tranpol), Jan. 2004, pp. 17-29.
Fostering Sustainable Behavior (www.cbsm.com) provides information on social marketing methods, including numerous articles, case studies and resources.
FTA (2006), Individualized Marketing Campaign Demonstration, Federal Transit Administration
(www.fta.dot.gov/initiatives_tech_assistance/technology/15791_ENG_HTML.htm).
Satoshi Fujii and Ayako Taniguchi (2006), “Determinants Of The Effectiveness Of Travel Feedback Programs—A Review Of Communicative Mobility Management Measures For Changing Travel Behaviour In Japan,” Transport Policy (www.elsevier.com/locate/tranpol), Volume 13, Issue 5, pp. 339-348.
Tommy Garling and Peter Loukopoulos (2003), “Public Attitudes,” Handbook of Transport and the Environment, Elsevier (www.elsevier.com), pp. 725-737.
Birgitta Gaterslbgen and Katherine M. Appleton
(2007), “Contemplating Cycling To Work: Attitudes and Perceptions in Different
Stages of Change,” Transportation
Research, Vol. 41, Issue 4 (www.elsevier.com/locate/tra),
May 2007, pp. 302-312.
Richard Gilbert (2002), Soft Measures and Travel Behaviour, Presented at “Communicating Environmentally Sustainable Transport - The Role of Soft Measures in Achieving EST” workshop, sponsored by the OECD (www.oecd.org).
Daniel Gilbert (2006), Stumbling on Happiness, Vintage Press.
Go Green Choices (www.gogreen.com) is a
Phil Goodwin (1997), “Habit and Hysteresis in Mode Choice,” Urban Studies, Vo. 14, pp. 95-98.
J.W. Guiver (2007), “Modal Talk: Discourse Analysis of How People Talk About Bus and Car Travel,” Transportation Research Record A, Vol. 41, Issue 3 (www.elsevier.com/locate/tra), March 2007, pp. 233-248.
Susan Handy, Lisa Weston and Patricia L. Mokhtarian (2005), “Driving By Choice Or Necessity?,” Transportation Research, Vol. 39A, Issues 2-3 (www.elsevier.com/locate/tra), Feb/Mar. 2005, 183-203.
Information and Publicity Helping the Objective of Reducing Motorized Mobility (INPHORMM) (www.wmin.ac.uk/Env/UDP/phorm/inphormm.htm) is an organization that supports TDM marketing efforts.
IOLT (2001), Netting More Passengers: The
Fundamentals of Travel Information on the Web,
ITP (2007), Making Personal Travel Planning Work:
Research Report, Integrated Transport Planning Ltd for the Department
for Transport (www.dft.gov.uk); at www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/sustainable/travelplans/ptp/makingptpworkresearch.
Google Transit Trip Planner (www.google.com/transit) provides public transit route planning and schedule information in participating cities.
Sara Hendricks and Ajay Joshi (2004), Commuter Choice Program Case Study Development and Analysis, Center for Urban Transportation Research (www.nctr.usf.edu/pdf/527-06.pdf).
ILT (2001), Public Transport Information Websites:
How to Get it Right - A Best Practice Guide, Institute of Logistics and
Transport (www.trg.soton.ac.uk/bpg/index.htm).
This 129-page document sets out the do’s and don’ts of presenting public
transport information on the web. It is based on a review of over 50 sites in
the
It All Adds Up to Cleaner Air (www.italladdsup.gov) is a public information program sponsored by The Alliance for Clean Air and Transportation, a coalition of government and private organizations to raise awareness of the connection between transportation choices, traffic congestion, and air quality.
Ian Ker (2003), Travel Demand Management: Public Transport Business Case, AARB Transport Research, RC5051, TravelSmart Program (www.travelsmart.vic.gov.au).
Todd Litman (2007), Mobility As A Positional Good: Implications for Transport Policy and Planning, Victoria Transport Policy Institute (www.vtpi.org); at www.vtpi.org/prestige.pdf.
Marketing Research Association (www.mra-net.org) is a professional organization for the opinion and marketing research industry.
MC ICAM (Implementation of Marginal Cost Pricing in Transport - Integrated Conceptual and Applied Model Analysis) (http://vplno1.vkw.tu-dresden.de/psycho/projekte/mcicam/e_mcicam.html), a program at the Traffic and Transportation Psychology department at the Dresden University of Technology (www.verkehrspsychologie-dresden.de) explores issues related to the problems and opportunities of implementing more efficient transportation pricing.
MetroPool (www.metropool.com)
delivers transportation demand management employers and commuters in the
Kate Myers (2005), Travel Behaviour Change Initiatives: A Local Government’s Innovations,
City of Darebin, Melbourne, Australia, presented at the 28th Australasian Transport Research Forum,
Travel Smart Program (www.travelsmart.vic.gov.au);
at www.travelsmart.vic.gov.au/doi/doielect.nsf/2a6bd98dee287482ca256915001cff0c/3081038634165c81ca25709700034de8/$FILE/TS%20and%20Local%20Government.pdf.
Ali Modarres (1993), “Evaluating Employer-Based Transportation Demand Management Programs,” Transportation Research Record A, Vol. 27, No. 4, pp. 291-297.
John Muhlhausen (2005), Wayfinding Is Not Signage: Signage Plays An Important Part Of Wayfinding – But There's More, (www.signweb.com/ada/cont/wayfinding0800.html).
NCTR (2004), Worksite
Trip Reduction Model and Manual,
NextBus (www.nextbus.com) is a private company that uses Global Positioning Systems
(GPS) to provide real-time transit vehicle arrival information to passengers
and managers in various North American cities.
Raymond Novaco and Cheryl Collier (1994), Commuting Stress, Ridesharing, and Gender: Analyses from the 1993 State of the Commute Study in Southern California, University of California Transportation Center (Berkeley), Working Paper #208 (www.uctc.net).
Raymond Novaco, Wendy Kliewer and Alexander Broquet
(1991), Home Environment Consequences of
Commute Travel Impedance, University of
NRG (2007), King County Metro 2006 Rider / Non-Rider Survey Final Report. Northwest Research Group for King County Metro.
Oil-Smart Campaign (www.wsdot.wa.gov/smartmoves), sponsored by the Bullitt Foundation and the Washington State Department of Transportation.
Pew (2006), Americans and Their Cars: Is the Romance on
the Skids? Fewer Americans like to drive, survey shows,
Pinnacle Research
(2004), Identifying Factors to Change
People’s Transport Use, Land Transport New
Pollution Probe
(2001), SMART Trip Reduction Manual, Pollution Probe (www.pollutionprobe.org/publications/air.htm).
PRR (2004), Travel Behavior Barriers and Benefits Research, Portland Regional Metro (www.metro-region.org).
Geoff Rose and Elizabeth Ampt (2003), “Travel Behavior Change Through Individual Engagement,” Handbook of Transport and the Environment, Elsevier (www.elsevier.com), pp. 725-737.
Michael Roth (2003), Overcoming Obstacles of Car Culture: Promoting an Alternative to Car Dependence Instead of Another Travel Mode, UITP International Marketing Conference (Paris), International Association of Public Transport (www.uitp.com); at www.vtpi.org/roth.pdf.
Anna Semlyen (2000), Cutting Your Car Use: Save Money, Be Healthy, Be Green, Green Books (www.cuttingyourcaruse.co.uk).
Jens Schade, The Acceptability of Travel Demand Management Measures, research project by Traffic and Transportation Psychology (www.verkehrspsychologie-dresden.de) at Dresden University of Technology.
R.K. Seethaler (2005), Evaluating Community-Based
TravelSmart in
John Shadoff (1996), Transportation Demand Management; A Guide for Including TDM Strategies in Major Investment Studies and in Planning for Other Transportation Projects, Office of Urban Mobility, WSDOT (www.wsdot.wa.gov/Mobility).
SocialData (www.socialdata.de) and Socialdata America (http://socialdata.us/links.php) have developed personalized transportation marketing techniques. Their websites contain information and references documenting transportation marketing projects and their impacts.
Stephen G. Stradling,
Jillian Anable and Michael Carreno (2007), “Performance, Importance And User
Disgruntlement: A Six-Step Method For Measuring Satisfaction With Travel Modes,”
Transportation
Research A, Vol. 41, No. 1 (www.elsevier.com/locate/tra),
Jan. 2007, pp. 98-106.
TAPESTRY (www.eu-tapestry.org) is a research project to develop better communication programmes and campaigns that encourage sustainable travel behaviour.
Michael A. P. Taylor (2007), “Voluntary Travel Behavior Change Programs In
Tools of Change (www.toolsofchange.com) provides guidance on developing emission reduction promotion programs, and case studies of successful projects.
TransAction Associates (Salesfsmkting@aol.com) sells a variety of transportation management program marketing materials, including giveaways, prizes, posters, displays, and an easy-to-follow implementation guide.
Traffic and Transportation Psychology (www.verkehrspsychologie-dresden.de) is a research center at Dresden University of Technology that performs research on transportation attitudes, preferences and behavior.
Dr. Paul Tranter and Dr. Murray May (2005), Using the Concept of Effective Speed as a Stimulus for Travel Behaviour Change and Policy Development, Australian Greenhouse Office (www.greenhouse.gov.au/tdm/publications/effectivespeed-concept.html).
Transportation
Control Measures Directory (http://yosemite.epa.gov/aa\tcmsitei.nsf)
provides a searchable database of TDM program case studies.
Travel Plans Website (www.local-transport.dft.gov.uk/travelplans/index.htm) provides guidance for developing employer and community transportation management programs.
TravelSmart (www.travelsmart.vic.gov.au) is a community-based program that encourages people to use alternatives to travelling in their private car. They have an extensive collection of research documents at www.travelsmart.vic.gov.au/web4/tsmart.nsf/headingpagesdisplay/Research.
TRB (2008), Understanding How to Motivate Communities to Support
and Ride Public Transportation, Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP)
Report 122, Transportation Research Board (www.trb.org);
at http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/tcrp/tcrp_rpt_122.pdf.
TTI (1999), A Handbook of Proven Marketing Strategies for Public Transit, Transit Cooperative Research Program Report 50, TRB (www.trb.org).
Katherine F. Turnbull (2004), “Planning The Road Ahead With Market Research: Transportation Agencies Stay In Gear With Customers, Resources, and Performance Measures,” TR News 230, TRB (www.trb.org), Jan.-Feb. 2004, pp. 10-16.
Katherine F. Turnbull and Richard H. Pratt (2003), Transit Information and Promotion: Traveler Response to Transport System Changes, Chapter 11, Transit Cooperative Research Program Report 95; TRB (www.trb.org); at http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/tcrp/tcrp_rpt_95c11.pdf.
Urban Transport Institute (www.tuti.com.au/Publications.html) is a research organization in
Bryon York and David Fabricatore (2003), Puget Sound Vanpool Market Action Plan, Draft, Office of Urban Mobility, WSDOT (www.wsdot.wa.gov); at www.vtpi.org/VanpoolMAPReport.pdf.
Way-to-Go
Edward P. Weber, David Nice, Nicholas P. Lovrich (2000), “Understanding Urban Commuters: How Are Non-SOV Commuters Different from SOV Commuters?” Transportation Quarterly, Vol. 54, No. 2, Spring 2000, pp. 105-115.
Whatcom Smart Trips (www.whatcomsmarttrips.org) is a partnership between local government, public agencies, employers, and schools to promote walking, bicycling, ridesharing and public transport.
Wirthlin Worldwide and FJCandN (2000), Enhancing the Visibility and Image of Transit in the United States and Canada, Transit Cooperative Research Program Report 63, National Academy Press (www.trb.org).
This
Encyclopedia is produced by the Victoria Transport Policy Institute to help
improve understanding of Transportation Demand Management. It is an ongoing
project. Please send us your comments and suggestions for improvement.
Victoria Transport Policy Institute
www.vtpi.org info@vtpi.org
Phone & Fax 250-360-1560
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