Transportation Management Programs
An Institutional Framework for Implementing TDM
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Victoria Transport Policy
Institute
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Updated
26 July 2008
This chapter discusses different types of transportation management programs, how they are organized and funded, and their role in implementing TDM strategies.
A TDM Program is an institutional framework for implementing a set of TDM strategies. Such a program has stated goals, objectives, a budget, staff, and a clear relationship with stakeholders. It may be a division within a transportation or transit agency, an independent government agency, or a public/private partnership. Below are possible responsibilities of a TDM Program:
·
Coordinates TDM Planning, Evaluation
and Data Collection.
·
Implements Marketing programs.
·
Responds to problems and complaints.
·
Provides Ridematching, Shuttle
Services, Pedestrian and Cycle Promotion, and Special Event Transportation Management services.
·
Provides Parking Management, Parking
Pricing and parking brokerage services. Coordinates arrangements for Shared Parking.
·
Supports Pedestrian and Bicycle Improvements, Freight Transportation Management and Security
Improvements that encourage use of alternative modes.
·
Coordinates activities with other organizations, such as Transportation Management Associations, Commute
Trip Reduction Programs and Institutional Reforms.
·
Supports integrated transportation and land use Planning
to improve Accessibility and reduce vehicle travel (Access Management, Smart Growth and
Location Efficient Planning).
TDM Programs insure that specific strategies are complementary and coordinated, for maximum effectiveness. For example, Transit Improvements, Pedestrian Improvements, and Parking Pricing can have far greater travel impacts and consumer benefits when implemented as a coordinated program. A general rule is that TDM Programs should include a balance of improved travel choice and incentives to reduce automobile travel.
TDM Programs should generally be ongoing so they provide continual support and encouragement, and respond to future opportunities and changes in individual’s travel needs and preferences. Travel patterns tend to reflect churning (continual turnover and change, sometimes due to specific events, such as changes in employment or home location); for example, during a given year some people naturally shift from automobile to public transit, while others shift from public transit to automobile due to changes in their circumstances and preference. TDM Programs should take these natural changes into account, providing encouragement for shifts toward more efficient travel patterns.
TDM Programs are usually established and Funded by local, regional or state/provincial governments, often within existing transportation agencies, or through grant programs. It may be organized as a division within a transportation or transit agency, as an independent government agency, or as a partnership between government and other community organizations, such as a chamber of commerce (called a Transportation Management Association).
Some governments make special efforts to implement TDM programs within their own agencies as a way to demonstrate leadership and as an opportunity to develop tools and experience that can be transferred to non-government organizations. For examples see the Greening Government guide at www.greeninggovernment.gc.ca, Federal House In Order “Commute and Business Travel” emission reduction program information at www.fhio.gc.ca/commuting/commuting.htm, and Skinner and Cohen, 1996.
A well managed and properly supported TDM Program can affect a significant portion of total travel. Comprehensive TDM Programs can achieve cost-effective reductions of 20-40% in motor vehicle travel compared with no TDM efforts, although most programs have smaller effects because they focus on particular types of trips (such as commuting), cover a limited geographic scope, or are limited to strategies that can be implemented by a particular government agency. Travel reductions of 10-30% are more realistic for TDM Programs implemented by local or regional governments.
Elasticities and Trip Reduction Tables describe the travel impacts of pricing strategies. Well-managed Commute Trip Reduction programs can reduce vehicle trips to a particular worksite by 15-30% (Comsis Corp., 1993), or more if implemented with regional TDM strategies such as road pricing and major transit improvements. Commute trips represent only about 30% of total personal vehicle travel (50-80% of travel on congested urban highways). Other types of trips can also be reduced using appropriate TDM strategies. For example, School Transport Management can also achieve 15-30% trip reductions. Land use management strategies such as Access Management, Smart Growth and Location Efficient Planning can reduce per capita vehicle travel by 20-50% in a specific area.
Table 1 Travel Impact Summary
|
Travel
Impact |
Rating |
Comments |
|
Reduces total traffic. |
2 |
Implements specific TDM
strategies. |
|
Reduces peak period
traffic. |
2 |
" |
|
Shifts peak to off-peak
periods. |
2 |
" |
|
Shifts automobile travel to
alternative modes. |
2 |
" |
|
Improves access, reduces
the need for travel. |
2 |
" |
|
Increased ridesharing. |
2 |
" |
|
Increased public transit. |
2 |
" |
|
Increased cycling. |
2 |
" |
|
Increased walking. |
2 |
" |
|
Increased Telework. |
2 |
" |
|
Reduced freight traffic. |
2 |
" |
Rating from 3 (very beneficial) to –3 (very harmful). A 0 indicates no impact or mixed impacts.
TDM Programs can provide many benefits, including reduced traffic congestion, increased mobility, road and parking cost savings, consumer savings, increased transport choice, reduced traffic crashes, environmental protection, more efficient land use, more livable communities and increased equity. By providing coordination, TDM Programs can increase the effectiveness of individual TDM strategies.
Costs include program expenses and any negative impacts of disincentives to driving. Some TDM strategies, such as Parking Pricing and Road Pricing, involve increased user charges, but these are economic transfers, not true resource costs, so their overall cost to consumers depends on how revenues are used (see Evaluating TDM). For example, parking fees may simply substitute for taxes or other indirect consumer payments to fund parking facilities.
Table 2 Benefit Summary
|
Objective |
Rating |
Comments |
|
Congestion Reduction |
2 |
Reduces automobile travel. |
|
Road & Parking Savings |
2 |
Reduces automobile travel. |
|
Consumer Savings |
2 |
Improves automobile
affordability. |
|
Transport Choice |
2 |
Increases transportation
choices. |
|
Road Safety |
2 |
Reduces automobile travel. |
|
Environmental Protection |
2 |
Reduces automobile travel. |
|
Efficient Land Use |
2 |
Reduces automobile travel,
benefits urban residents. |
|
Community Livability |
2 |
Reduces automobile travel. |
Rating from 3 (very beneficial) to –3 (very harmful). A 0 indicates no impact or mixed impacts.
TDM Programs can have a wide range of equity impacts, depending on program design and the conditions in which it is implemented. Although TDM Programs usually require subsidies, these are often less than subsidies currently provided for automobile travel. For example, TDM Programs may simply substitute for current public expenditures on parking and roadway expansion.
TDM Programs can help achieve equity objectives. They can correct market distortions that currently favor driving over other travel modes. For example, they can reduce parking subsidies, or provide non-drivers with comparable benefits. Similarly, Road Pricing can charge motorists directly for road and congestion costs, as opposed to indirect funding that results in cross-subsidies from residents who drive less than average to those who drive more than average.
Most TDM Programs increase vertical equity by improving mobility options for non-drivers. Many also provide financial savings to non-drivers (such as Parking Cash Out and Transit Fare Discounts), which tend to benefit lower-income people most. TDM Programs can significantly improve Basic Mobility by improving and coordinating travel alternatives. Of course, these benefits vary depending on circumstances.
Table 3 Equity Summary
|
Criteria |
Rating |
Comments |
|
Treats everybody equally. |
0 |
Varied and mixed. |
|
Individuals bear the costs
they impose. |
2 |
TDM Programs may require
subsidies, but these are generally less than subsidies for driving. Many TDM
strategies reduce transportation subsidies overall. |
|
Progressive with respect to
income. |
2 |
TDM Programs tend to
increase transport choice and potential savings to lower-income households. |
|
Benefits transportation
disadvantaged. |
3 |
TDM strategies often
increase transport choice and savings to non-drivers. |
|
Improves basic mobility. |
3 |
TDM strategies often
improve basic transport options. |
Rating from 3 (very
beneficial) to –3 (very harmful). A 0 indicates no impact or mixed impacts.
TDM Programs are appropriate in almost any geographic area, although benefits tend to be greatest in large and growing urban areas where transportation problems are greatest. Comprehensive TDM Programs are appropriate for implementation at the local, regional and state/provincial level. Business organizations, individual businesses, developers and campus managers can also implement TDM Programs.
Table 4 Application Summary
|
Geographic |
Rating |
Organization |
Rating |
|
Large urban region. |
3 |
Federal government. |
2 |
|
High-density, urban. |
3 |
State/provincial
government. |
3 |
|
Medium-density,
urban/suburban. |
3 |
Regional government. |
3 |
|
Town. |
3 |
Municipal/local government. |
3 |
|
Low-density, rural. |
3 |
Business Associations/TMA. |
3 |
|
Commercial center. |
3 |
Individual business. |
2 |
|
Residential neighborhood. |
3 |
Developer. |
2 |
|
Resort/recreation area. |
3 |
Neighborhood association. |
2 |
|
|
|
Campus. |
2 |
Ratings range from 0 (not
appropriate) to 3 (very appropriate).
TDM Program
TDM Programs support most other TDM strategies. Many TDM strategies cannot be implemented or will be ineffective if they are not part of a comprehensive TDM Program that provides coordination and support. Commute Trip Reduction, Transportation Management Associations, Tourist Transport Management and Campus Transport Management are specific types of TDM Program. Least Cost Planning, Institutional Reform, Contingency-Based Planning and Regulatory Reform can be implemented in conjunction with TDM Programs. It is important to incorporate Evaluation and participant Surveys into TDM Programs.
TDM Programs depend on governments for implementation, funding and enforcement. Their effectiveness depends on support from local businesses and residents, and from other levels of government. Transportation professionals, motorists, environmentalists, taxpayer organizations, public safety officials, transit supporters, and neighborhood organizations all have reasons to support comprehensive TDM Programs.
Common barriers include existing planning and funding practices that favor capacity expansion over demand management (even when it is more cost effective and beneficial overall), institutional opposition to change, political opposition to change, and resistance from special interest groups that benefit from existing inefficiencies. Some anti-government groups oppose TDM Programs on the grounds that they represent government intrusion into private activities.
A number of organizations and publications listed below provide information on TDM Program planning and implementation. Best practices include:
· Make TDM Programs
comprehensive, including as many transportation improvements and incentives as
appropriate for a particular situation.
· Include both positive and
negative incentives. TDM Programs tend to be most effective when they improve
consumers’ travel choices and provide incentives to use alternatives to driving
when possible.
· Apply Contingency-Based
Planning by identifying the solutions that will be deployed if needed to
address future problems.
· Do not limit TDM Programs to
commute trips.
· Integrate transportation and
land use planning as part of a comprehensive TDM Programs.
· Involve stakeholders in TDM
Program planning and implementation, including transportation and land use
planning agencies, transit providers, businesses, residents and employees.
· Be sensitive to equity
concerns, by applying incentives equally (for example, by applying Parking
Pricing to administrators as well as staff), and by providing positive
incentives that balance negative incentives.
· Establish stable program Funding.
· Produce an annual “State of
the Commute” report, which describes TDM programs and resources, travel trends,
and comparisons with other communities.
|
An
elderly man is dying of a painful illness at home in his bed. He smelled the
aroma of his favorite chocolate chip cookies wafting up the stairs. He
gathered his remaining strength, and lifted himself from the bed. Leaning
against the wall, he slowly made his way out of the bedroom, and with even
greater effort descended the stairs, gripping the railing with both hands.
With labored breath, he leaned against the door frame, gazing into the
kitchen. Were
it not for death’s agony, he would have thought himself already in heaven:
there, spread out on newspapers on the kitchen table were literally hundreds
of his favorite chocolate chip cookies. Was it heaven? Or was it one final
act of heroic love from his devoted wife, seeing to it that he left this
world a happy man? Mustering
his last energy, he crawls toward the table, landing on his knees in a
rumpled posture. His parched lips parted, the wondrous taste of the cookie
already in his mouth from anticipation, seemingly bring him back to life. The
withered and shaking hand made its way to a cookie at the edge of the table.
Wack! It was smacked with a spatula by his wife. “Stay
out of those,” she said, “they’re for the funeral.” |
The
Community Transportation Action Program (CTAP) was launched in August 1996 as a
joint venture of five
CTAP's
mandate was to provide transitional support to communities interested in
restructuring and coordinating their local transportation services. CTAP
supported the development of innovative, local transportation services.
In
the past, exclusive relationships existed between users and providers of
transportation. For example, school boards would typically contract school bus
operators to provide transportation; municipalities would provide or contract
public transit services; social service agencies would use volunteers and/or
agency vans; and health facilities would primarily use ambulances. Improved
coordination of transportation resources can result in less duplication, less
inefficiency and fewer gaps in service. It also breaks down barriers between
client groups, thus providing a wider range of vehicles to meet users' needs in
a more flexible and cost-effective manner.
For
example, in some communities, rather than sitting idle, school buses are being
used between morning and afternoon student runs to transport seniors and
persons with disabilities. In a remote northern
Mobility management in
The objective of Camden Direct is to promote public transport services, as well
as to reduce the need to travel. Target groups are local people, council staff,
tourists and other visitors. The objective of the Camden Green Travel Network
is to reduce the impact of motor vehicles and related pollution through the
development of a mobility management network and encourage local employers to
develop green travel plans. The objective of Camden Clear Zones is to develop
traffic free areas and low emission zones. Target groups are local residents,
local employers and visitors to the area.
The objectives of the mobility management services have been met with a high
degree of success. The usage of the Camden Direct mobility centre has risen
since its inception in March 2000, with over 6,000 ticket sales during its
first 12 months of operation and this increased to approximately 7,000 public
transport ticket sales in the second year of operation. The Camden Green Travel
Network has 24 members covering 35 separate addresses and the initiative was
relaunched at the end of 2002 with a new website and additional staffing to
further increase its effectiveness. Mobility plans at 18 of these addressed
will be enforceable via planning agreements made under local regulations, while
the other 17 plans are being developed voluntarily. The Camden Clear Zones
project has several initiatives, e.g. traffic calming measures have been implemented
on an area by area basis, participation in the Car Free Day enabled
measurements on noise, air quality and traffic volumes to be made, which were
used to support longer-term proposals for traffic management measures.
Travel
Smart is a
community-based program in
The
Space Coast Area Transit agency in
· Employer benefits: Reduced
federal taxes, reduced parking demand, employee recruitment and retainment,
positive public relations and increased employee productivity.
· Customer benefits: Reduced
commuting costs, less wasted time and reduced stress.
· Community benefits: Improved
air quality, reduced peak period traffic congestion, quality of life issues,
reduced energy consumption and less land used for parking facilities.
The
overall goal of the Central Okanagan TDM program is to reduce peak period
automobile traffic in the region by 12% by the year 2013 relative to trend
growth in traffic volumes. In 1998, the Regional District, City of
The
TravelSmart program in
Land
use integration: Recognizing the strong links between transportation and land use, the
city's official plan was revised to minimize the demand for car travel by
influencing growth patterns. The plan now favours a compact form of
development, situating accommodation close to employment and community
services, and increasing density of the central area.
Less
expensive road structure alternatives: To avoid expensive improvements to road networks,
the city has slowed or halted development in some areas and identified
underutilized arterial corridors for access to the downtown core. Rather than
building bypasses over the busy highway that runs through town, the city
encourages residents to use alternatives to the highway.
Improved
public transit:
A comprehensive travel plan was developed to improve the level of service and
provide alternatives to the single occupant vehicle. Some improvements include
increased frequency of service to outlying communities and the use of smaller
buses that feed into the main system.
Promoting
bicycle use:
The Kamloops Bicycle Plan identifies $6 million worth of additional cycle
routes and initiatives for businesses to provide "end of trip"
facilities to cyclists, such as showers and bike racks.
Promotional
programs:
Transportation alternatives, such as carpooling, biking and walking, are
promoted through workshops and seminars in workplaces; the "Safe Routes to
School" program in schools; "Go Green" billboards on commuter
streets; and door-to-door neighborhood education by city staff. The plan
recognizes the need for an ongoing awareness campaign and community involvement
to sustain TravelSmart.
Total
project planning costs $300,000, of which $245,000 was funded by the city and
$55,000 by the province. The full program is funded through city's general
revenue, development cost charges, the B.C. Transportation Financing Authority,
specific developers and BC Transit.
TravelSmart
will be updated every five years as one component of "Kamplan", the
city's growth management strategy.
After
three years of operation, the program has improved air quality and reduced
planned road expenditures by 75 per cent. Economic and environmental benefits:
· Anticipated road
expenditures were reduced from $120 million to $14 million.
· Annual energy consumption is
expected to decline from 128 to 125 gigajoules per capita.
· Carbon monoxide is expected
to decline from 116 to 111 kg/capita/year, and carbon dioxide from 7,200 to
7,000 kg/capita/year.
ACT (2001), Transportation Demand Management Tool Kit, Association for Commuter Transportation (www.actweb.org).
American Planning Association (www.planning.org) has extensive resources for community and transportation planning.
Apogee (1994), Costs and Cost Effectiveness of Transportation Control Measures; A Review and Analysis of the Literature, National Association of Regional Councils (www.narc.org).
Association for Commuter Transportation (www.actweb.org) is a non-profit organization supporting TDM Programs.
BC Transit (2000), Travel Options Manual (www.transitbc.com/traveloptions).
Sally
City of Cambridge, Parking And Transportation Demand Management Planning (http://bpc.iserver.net/codes/cbridge).