Developing Country TDM
Transportation Demand Management in Lower-Income Regions
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Victoria Transport Policy
Institute
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Updated
23 July 2008
This chapter discusses the implementation of TDM in developing (i.e., lower-income) regions. Demand management can be particularly important in such areas due to limited economic resources, diverse transportation systems, equity objectives and environmental conditions. This chapter describes resources available to help implement TDM in developing countries.
Developing Regions (also called Lower Income,
Consumers in developing regions have less money to spend on transportation, and so depend more on Affordable Transportation options, such as walking, cycling, animal power, ridesharing, transit and taxi services. Higher transportation costs associated with Automobile Dependency tends to place a financial burden on consumers and reduce the options available to a significant portion of the population.
By definition, developing regions have limited economic resources and so tend to benefit even more from transportation cost savings and efficiency than wealthier regions. For example, a TDM strategy that improves lower-cost travel options may benefit a greater portion of residents in developing than in developed regions.
TDM tends to support Economic Development by encouraging more efficient transportation, as discussed below. Automobile dependency can reduce economic development if it increases overhead costs or reduces the amount of wealth available for industrial investment.
Compared with economically wealthy countries, developing regions usually have less capital but more labor resources, meaning that an economically optimal transportation system will tend to be more labor intensive and less capital intensive than in more developed regions.
Most developing countries rely largely on imported vehicles, and even when they produce their own vehicles a major portion of the components are imported. Many developing countries also rely on imported petroleum. Motor vehicles, parts and fuel constitute a major portion of total imports in most developing countries. Each region or country has limited foreign exchange. Goods imported to support automobile use can reduce economic development and social welfare by crowding out the importation of other goods and services required for industrial development, education, or medical services.
Many experts predict that international fuel prices are likely to increase in the future, as the growth in production decreases while international demand grows, so the economic costs of importing petroleum are likely to increase (Transportation Costs). It is important that developing countries avoid creating an energy intensive transportation system that is vulnerable to such price increases.
Transportation equity in developing countries justifies greater emphasis on balanced transportation, due to the greater portion of the population that do not use automobiles. A policy that benefits motorists at the expense of other road users is more inequitable and imposes greater external costs in a region where only 5% of households own an automobile than where 90% of households do.
Walking, cycling and various forms of public transit are particularly important forms of transportation in many developing regions (Koster and de Langen, 2001). Increased automobile use tends to consume resources (road space, transportation facility investments, etc.) and degrade travel conditions for these modes. It is economically inefficient and inequitable to favor automobile transportation if it is only used by a minority of the population, if doing so reduces transportation options used by the majority of the population.
Developing countries often have a wide range of travel modes and needs, including people with disabilities and communication barriers, and various types of handcarts, animal carriage and head loading (Rickert, 2003; TRL, 2004).
Transportation planning involves countless decisions concerning the allocation of public resources and the management of public facilities. These tradeoffs determine the convenience, speed and safety of different modes, and so effectively prioritize transportation activities and the allocation of costs and benefits. Such decisions are often made without explicit consideration of their impacts on travel behavior or overall transportation system efficiency. More Comprehensive Transportation Planning can help decision-makers in developing countries incorporate more appropriate priorities and assumptions. For example, HOV Priority, Nonmotorized Transportation Improvements and Vehicle Restrictions may be more appropriate in developing countries where travel demand is more diverse.
Basic transportation improvements, such as paved roads to
rural areas, can provide significant economic development benefits, often far
greater than highway capacity expansion in cities. For example, Fan and
Chan-Kang (2005) evaluate the contribution roads have made to poverty reduction
and economic growth in
Automobile-oriented transportation policies tend to result in automobile-dependent land use patterns, which reduces the viability and increases the costs of nonmotorized transportation.
Many developing regions have a limited supply of land which is threatened by the roads and parking required by a high level of automobile ownership (Kauffman, 2001). Even countries that have relatively low population densities may have a limited supply of certain types of land, such as high quality agricultural land or certain types of environments.
Sustainable Transportation principles suggest that greater value be placed on developing an efficient and balanced transportation system.
It can be relatively difficult to implement Energy Conservation and Emission Reduction programs in developing regions due to limited funds, technological resources and enforcement institutions. Vehicle fleets in developing regions tend to be older and more poorly maintained than in developed regions, and so pollution emissions per vehicle-mile tend to be greater. As a result, reductions in vehicle use tend to provide greater environmental benefit.
TDM and Smart Growth do not eliminate automobile travel, but they can significantly reduce Automobile Dependency and the amount of automobile travel that occurs for a given level of economic development and wealth. This is particularly important in developing countries where most households cannot afford an automobile, and bear significant costs if transportation systems and land use patterns become automobile oriented.
Vehicles used efficiently in industrial, commercial and community applications can increase productivity and support economic development. For example, a doctor or engineer can often accomplish more in a day if they have a car. But most personal automobile use is a consumer good that provides convenience and Prestige, and does little to increase productivity.
Excessive automobile ownership and use tends to reduce economic development (Litman and Laube, 1999). International research suggests that beyond an optimal level (about 7,500 kilometers of per capita annual motor vehicle travel overall, although this varies depending on geographic and economic factors), the economic costs of increased vehicle travel outweigh the marginal benefits (Kenworthy, et al, 1997).
Personal automobile ownership and use is associated with economic development, but this occurs primarily because economic development increases wealth, which allows these expenditures. There is no evidence that high levels of per capita automobile use increases economic productivity and development. Most developing countries experience their greatest periods of economic growth when the rate of automobile ownership is relatively low, and growth rates generally decline as a country devotes more resources to consumer goods.
High levels of automobile dependency can reduce economic development in several ways. Excessive vehicle expenses, road expenses, congestion, crash costs and pollution can increase overhead costs and damage some forms of economic activity (for example, excessive pollution may reduce tourist industry development). Money spent on automobile transportation diverts wealth that could otherwise be used for industrial investment (Hook, 1995).
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Economic
Development Impacts of Automobile Expenditures The automobile industry is a major economic sector, so many people assume that vehicle ownership and use stimulate economic development. At one time it may have made sense to encourage automobile use as a way to take advantage of economies of scale in vehicle and road production, and to stimulate development of an automobile industry. During the middle of the Twentieth Century several countries successfully based their economic development on automobile manufacturing. However,
it is production and export of goods that supports economic development, not
consumption. Expenditures on automobiles and fuel provide less regional
economic development or employment than expenditures on most other goods
because they are capital intensive and much of the value is imported from
other regions (even if a vehicle is assembled in a developing country, most parts
are imported). Although a region may benefit economically from motor vehicle
exports, there is no reason to think that domestic consumption of motor
vehicles increases economic development. The
automobile industry is now overcapitalized. World vehicle production capacity
is expected to exceed demand by 30% or more over the next few years, making
vehicle production extremely competitive (The Economist, 1999). As a
result, automobile manufacturing is less profitable than many other
industries and may become even less profitable in the future. Many other
industries now pay comparable or better wages, and manufacturers demand
various financial incentives from governments
(tax rebates, infrastructure expenditures and training programs) in
exchange for locating industrial facilities in a jurisdiction that absorb
much of their regional economic benefits. It is now very difficult for
countries to develop a profitable and independent vehicle manufacturing
industry that will produce significant exports. |
Developing regions vary greatly in their geographic, demographic and economic conditions. TDM Planning should reflect local conditions and needs. Transportation planning in developing countries often requires consideration of special impacts or issues, including impacts that motor vehicle traffic can have on Nonmotorized Transport, domestic and wild animals, land use, cultural and natural sites, Tourism, Safety and various Equity issues. As a result, it is particularly important to involve stakeholders and account for all Costs.
It is important to develop long-term goals and objectives that are realistic, cost effective and equitable. Solutions that may be appropriate in wealthy countries are often less appropriate in developing regions. A major obstacle to TDM planning in developing countries is the assumption that automobile-oriented transportation systems are desirable and inevitable. It is useful to point out that many developed countries are now implementing transportation reforms to create more balanced, less automobile-dependent transportation systems. Developing countries can avoid future problems by implementing such reforms before they become highly automobile dependent.
Most developing regions have relatively balanced transportation systems, with high levels of non-motorized transportation (walking, cycling, animal carts, etc.) and public transit services. Implementing TDM often involves policies that support existing transportation systems and constrain automobile use. This involves applying Market Principles to transportation to avoid underpricing motor vehicle use or favoring it in policies and transportation planning.
One TDM strategy that can be particularly appropriate in developing countries is to eliminate vehicle fuel subsidies (where they exist), and implement, gradual and predictable (less than 10% at any time) long-term Fuel Tax Increases (Metschies, 1999). At a minimum, fuel taxes should cover basic roadway expenditures (a minimum tax of about 10¢ per liter), or more to fund other transport sector expenditures (including subsidies for rail and public transit services), and contribute to general funds.
· Base transportation planning on local conditions and needs. Avoid high-cost solutions that reflect the needs and resources in developed countries.
· Develop Accessible land use patterns. Implement Smart Growth practices that encourage efficient development.
· Maintain and develop a balanced transportation system which provides a high level of mobility and access to non-drivers. Avoid policy, planning or investment practices that favor automobile travel over other modes or lead to automobile dependency.
· Value and protect nonmotorized transportation. Invest in Nonmotorized Improvements. Avoid policies and projects that degrade pedestrian and cycling conditions, such as new highways that divide existing communities or eliminate walkways. Use Traffic Calming to control vehicle traffic volumes and speeds, particularly in urban neighborhoods.
· Use Comprehensive Planning. Use Least Cost Planning to maximize transportation system efficiency.
· Account for Environmental, Community Livability and Health factors in transportation planning.
· Use Transportation Planning practices that involve stakeholders in decision making.
· Apply Full Cost Pricing to automobile travel, including Road Pricing, Parking Pricing and appropriate Fuel Taxes or Distance-based Charges.
· Encourage Transportation Choice, including Nonmotorized Improvements, Universal Access, Transit Improvements, Shuttle Services, Ridesharing, Taxi and Carsharing.
· Implement appropriate regulations and restrictions on motor vehicle use, including traffic safety and environmental regulations, Vehicle Restrictions and Car-free Planning. Develop enforcement systems that insure compliance.
· Consider impacts on Nonmotorized Transportation in transportation planning and project evaluation.
· Manage Nonmotorized Facilities to insure efficient and equitable use of sidewalks and paths.
· Use Sustainable Transportation principles.
· Use Tourist Transport Management to minimize economic, social and environmental harm from tourist and recreational travel.
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“Do
not think of today’s failures, but of the success that may come
tomorrow. You have set yourselves a difficult task, but you will
succeed if you persevere; and you will find joy in overcoming obstacles.
Remember, no effort that we make to attain something beautiful is ever lost.”
– Helen Keller |
Curitiba, capital of the Brazilian state Paraná 400 km south east of São Paulo, has over the last 30 years developed a high-quality, cost-effective public transport system. Today it stands as a model recognized internationally. Insightful, long term planning with several innovative solutions has provided the citizens with an effective system that gives priority to public instead of private transport. It has the highest user rates of all Brazilian state capitals, 75% of all weekday commuters. All this during an unprecedented city growth.
The city of
·
TransMilenio, a high-capacity public transportation system using articulated buses
and convenient, magnetic ticketing.
·
Bikeways. 120 existing and 180 planned kilometers of cycle paths.
·
Walkways. Construction of sidewalks and shaded walkways (“alamedas”) throughout
the city.
·
Increased parking fees.
·
Pico y Placa. Restrictions on private automobile travel, based on each vehicle’s
license-plate number.
·
Car-Free Day. An annual Car-Free day.
Because this program includes restrictions on automobile travel it was initially controversial. In October, 2000 a public referendum on the program received more than 62% yes votes indicating a high level of public support.
The
majority of
These
problems are even worse for school children, who are sometimes denied access on
private buses. Female students are sometimes forced to engage in relationships
with male drivers or conductors to facilitate easy entry in the private buses
and many children suffer from poor attendance and late arrival at school. The
cost of transport also limits access to schools and disrupts education,
especially of female pupils.
The
Association for Advancing Low Cost Mobility (AALOCOM) was formed to address the
mobility needs of
The
project will be piloted in a medium sized city with significant traffic
problems, using schools with a high percentage of children residing 2-3
kilometres away. It will focus on:
Before
the Rickshaw Trolley Community Solid Waste Collection system was introduced,
solid waste in most of
Solid waste needed to be lifted from the street to tractor trolleys without hydraulic equipment. To do this the municipality in 1995 designed and introduced a loading platform with an access ramp for direct loading into parked tractor trolleys. Now 10 collection depots manage the city's daily solid waste. They use available space along street rights-of-way and do not interfere with traffic movement. To make operation of the depots feasible, the service area had to be increased. This was achieved through the introduction of a three-wheeled rickshaw trolley with a modified frame for easier pedaling, and a tilting bin for easy unloading, designed and built by local workshops. These easy to move rickshaw trolleys have twice the capacity of handcarts and double their service area to 400 meters.
This
low-cost system has eliminated the need for hydraulic lifting throughout the
city and dramatically reduced staff physical contact with solid waste. The
improvement in city appearance has changed the public attitude toward the city.
In addition, the municipality has even donated a rickshaw trolley for
replication to the city of
The
So
in 2000, VBP brought about $1000 worth of bike tools, and began to show them to
the bike mechanics. Many were initially wary to pay for tools they had never
seen so VBP sold them well below cost. As one mechanic said, "These tools
help my business very much. It was very difficult to rebuild a rear wheel
before, you usually would break the free [freewheel] before it would come off;
a new free [freewheel] costs 22,000 Cedis [US $4]. I use the free remover twice
and it is paid for."
The
Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP) donated tools the
following year, and as mechanics became more familiar with the tools, they were
willing to pay higher prices. By the end of 2001, prices for some tools had
reached wholesale
A study of potential road pricing in
In tackling transport and
rural development issues,
1. New Road Design. The Department of Roads & Highways is now
designing rural roads using new standards taking into account the needs of the
generally non-motor vehicle using population. One readily apparent result of
the change is a 'single-blade' (4m or 13ft) compacted road. But the far more
important products of the program are the change in the production process and
the changes to social structure and the resource base and allocation -- because
of the changes in design standards, a road can be built most economically by
labor intensive methods (costing 10-15% less than with mechanical methods),
more rural employment is generated and there is growth in the local economy
supplying the projects.
The road program also
includes a street-tree component, where citizens plant and maintain trees on
both sides of the road, providing great relief to non-motorized travelers.
Wells for safe drinking water are being drilled as part of the program.
2. Transportation Rehabilitation Project. One aspect of this project is
the development and initial production of 250 bicycle trailers and promotion of
bicycles for women. Surveys of women show that the equipment was readily
accepted as a substitute for head-portage. Women have avidly taken to using the
bicycle and trailer and there has been no cultural resistance to the change.
The main problem identified is a lack of money or access to credit to buy the
vehicles. This obstacle is being overcome by the purchase of the trailers by
local NGO's, who then sell them to community members on installment payback
schemes.
3. The Ministry Of Local Government's Bicycle Program.
The Transportation Rehabilitation program has met with good success and is now
spurring employment by encouraging local entrepreneurs to produce trailers. The
LG bicycle project is encouraging employment generation by training local youth
to assemble, repair and maintain the bicycles. The road design program has so
far trained 35 private contractors, employing over 3000 people. The target is
for 70% of the employees to be women and to combine the employment with
nutrition education and vitamin and mineral supplement (iron was specifically
mentioned for women.) Each employee works for about 3 months, receives food and
vitamin/mineral subsidies, earns US$145 and has access to a savings plan to buy
a bicycle to use on the new roads. The education and coordination of the
program is provided by local NGO's, helping to strengthen these community
organizations and insure their long term presence in the community.
Recognizing the need for
good-quality bicycles in African cities, the Institute for Transportation and
Development Policy (ITDP) teamed with US industry experts and independent
African bike dealers to create the “Los Angeles Bike,” a six-speed utilitarian
bicycle, the first in a series of bicycles to be designed under the California Bike name. By shouldering the
risk of importing and distributing the bicycle throughout
In addition to filling the
existing need for good-quality bicycles in the general public, ITDP works to
enable ownership for people who cannot afford a new bicycle. Employers
throughout
The Global Environment
Facility (GEF), in cooperation with the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP), the World Bank and other development organizations has implemented a Small Grants Programme that supports
community-based initiatives to encourage sustainable transportation
development. Lessons and experiences documented demonstrate that community
initiatives play an important role in testing new approaches, raising awareness
of new ideas, piloting innovative strategies, and informing and stimulating policy
dialogue in a cost-effective way.
For instance, community
initiatives with local civil society organizations in
By Philip P. Pan,
The turnaround is a small
milestone in the rapid transformation of Chinese life, one that provokes mixed
feelings among Chinese about how their country is changing as its economy
grows. Applauded by those who see the automobile as a symbol of progress, the
bike's decline is mourned by environmentalists and others who yearn for a time
when the streets were not so crowded and people were not so busy. And like so
much else in modern
"Ordinary people like us
can't afford cars," Song grumbled. "We ride bicycles." The
bicycle still has not gone the way of the rickshaw. It remains the primary mode
of transportation for millions, and there are nearly twice as many bicycles in
Cars rule the roads now,
spewing exhaust into cyclists' faces, pushing them into crowded side lanes and
striking them with startling frequency. Housing reform has led people to move
farther from their jobs, making bicycle commutes increasingly impractical. And
modern young women choosing skirts instead of pants are giving up their bikes
for rapidly expanding bus and subway lines.
Less than a decade ago,
residents of
"It's not the same
anymore," sighed Yeh Nong, 43, a government worker browsing in one of
Bicycle production has been
falling since 1995, and almost all the bikes made in
But because road construction
has not kept pace, the result has been a traffic mess that makes the Capital
Beltway at rush hour look like a walk in the park. Cars trying to escape
gridlock sneak into the bike lanes. Cyclists dash through intersections,
dodging traffic. Chinese engineers like to tell stories about Western traffic
experts who arrive brimming with solutions only to depart, shaking their heads
in despair.
More often than not, city
leaders have sided with the cars. In
Even in
"These roads used to be
ours," said Du Xiaoying, 40, sneaking down the street on her black Flying
Pigeon bicycle. "Now, the cars have taken over. They drive too fast. They
even park in our lanes. There's nothing we can do."
Traffic accidents are up
sharply, with the number of fatalities rising by 70 percent in the past decade
to more than 83,000 last year, making
Naturally, the bicyclists
blame the people driving cars. But the drivers insist the bicyclists are
reckless, pointing out they do not need a license or a traffic-safety course to
ride a bike.
"I've never hit a
bicycle, but they hit me all the time," complained cabby Liu Jianshu, 38,
as a bicyclist careered across three lanes of traffic in front of him. "A
lot of these people, they're living in the past. They just go wherever they
want, no matter what the rules are, because they could do that before."
Like many drivers, Liu has no
patience for bicycle nostalgia. "What kind of country would we be if we
were all still riding bicycles? This is progress. This is development," he
said. "Who wants to ride a bicycle when you can drive a car?"
Many Chinese agree. A recent
survey in 20 cities by the Association of Chinese Customers found a third of
urban families plan to buy a car within five years. Another study found most
people consider knowing how to drive a car to be one of three "basic and
necessary skills in modern Chinese society," along with the ability to
speak English and use a computer.
Such attitudes alarm
environmentalists. They warn that if the percentage of the population owning
cars in
Problems like this have led
many of
Access; the Sustainable Transport Forum (www.ecoplan.org/com_index.htm) is an information network dedicated to exploring and promoting sustainable transportation.
Access Exchange International (www.globalride-sf.org) is a non-profit organization that promotes cost-effective access to public transportation for disabled persons in developing countries.
Qureshi Intikhab Ahmed, Huapu Lu
and Shi Ye (2008), “Urban Transportation and Equity: A Case Study of
Madhav G. Badami (2006), “The Urban Transport Challenge In India Considerations, Implications And Strategies,” International Development Planning Review (IDPR), Liverpool University Press (www.liverpool-unipress.co.uk), Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 169-194.
Rahman Paul Barter and Tamim Raad (2000), Taking
Steps: A Community Action Guide to People-Centred, Equitable and Sustainable
Urban Transport, Sustainable Transport Action Network for
Major Desman Brown (2006), Urban Public Bus Transportation in Developing Countries: A Roadmap For Successful
Planning, Desmon Brown (www.desmonbrown.com).
Jodi Browne, Eduardo Sanhueza, Erin Silsbe, Steve Winkleman and Chris Zegras (2005), Getting on Track: Finding a Path for Transportation in the CDM (Clean Development Mechanism), International Institute for Sustainable Development (www.iisd.org/pdf/2005/climate_chile_getting_on_track.pdf). This report explains how a Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) can encourage more efficient transportation policies in developing countries.
Centre For Science And Environment (CSE) (www.cseindia.org) is a network of
professionals interested in environmental and sustainable development issues,
located in
Robert Cervero (2005), “Progressive Transportation
and the Poor:
Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) (www.worldbank.org/wbi/cleanair/caiasia) promotes and demonstrates innovative ways to improve the air quality of Asian cities through partnerships and sharing experiences.
John Cracknell (2000), Experience in Urban Traffic Management and Demand Management in Developing Countries, World Bank, Urban Transport Strategy Review (http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/transport/utsr.nsf).
S. L., Cullinane, and K.P.B. Cullinane (1997), ‘Increasing Car Ownership and Use in Egypt: The Straw That Breaks the Camel’s Back?’, International Journal of Transport Economics, February, 1995, Vol. XXII, No. 1, pp. 35-63.
Jonathan Dawson and Ian Barwell (1993), Roads Are Not Enough, Intermediate Technology Publications (www.itdg.org).
DFID (www.transport-links.org) by the UK Department for International Development presents information about transport-related strategies for supporting development in lower-income countries. The DFID-sponsored report Social Benefits in Transport Planning (www.transport-links.org/transport_links/projects/projects_document_page.asp?projectid=322), describes methodologies for more comprehensive transportation project evaluation.
Harry Dimitriou (1992), Urban Transport Planning; A Developmental Approach, Routledge (NY).
P. Elsenaar and
Equity Watch (www.cseindia.org/html/cmp/climate/ew/index.htm) is a climate change newsletter from the Southern perspective.
Shenggen Fan and
Connie Chan-Kang (2005), Road Development, Economic Growth, And Poverty
Reduction In China, International Food Policy Research Institute (www.ifpri.org/pubs/abstract/abstr138.htm).
GEF (2006), Environmentally Sustainable Transport And Climate Change: Experiences And Lessons From Community Initiatives, Global Environment Facility (www.undp.org); at www.undp.org/sgp/download/GEF_SGP_Sustainable_Transport_and_Climate_Change.pdf.
GTZ (2003), Sustainable Transportation: A
Sourcebook for Policy-Makers in Developing Countries, (www.sutp.org), by the Sustainable Urban
Transport Project –
Kevin Heaslip
and Dwayne Henclewood (2008), Effects of
Increased Transit Efficiency on Mobility in Small Developing Countries: Case
Study in Kingston, Jamaica,
Transportation Research Board 87th Annual Meeting (www.trb.org).
Walter Hook (1995), ‘Economic Importance of Nonmotorized Transportation,’ Transportation Research Record 1487, TRB (www.trb.org), pp. 14-21.
Economist (1999), “The Car Industry” The Economist, 13 Feb., pp. 23-25.
Global
Environment Facility (http://gefweb.org/main.htm)
helps developing countries fund sustainable development projects that also
protect the global environment, including several urban transportation
improvement programs.
Global Transport Knowledge Partnership (www.gtkp.com) provides resources and support to help transport practitioners in developing countries participate actively in, and contribute to, policy and technical developments globally.
I-ce
(2000), The Significance
of Non-Motorised Transport for Developing Countries: Strategies for Policy
Development, World
Bank, Urban Transport Strategy Review (http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/transport/utsr.nsf).
Indevelopment (www.indevelopment.nl) provides information planning and evaluation for international development, including guidance on transportation planning and investments.
Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (www.itdp.org) promotes socially equitable and environmentally sustainable transportation policies and projects worldwide. The ITDP publishes a quarterly on-line newsletter, TransportActions, available free at their website. ITDP provides several useful documents on its website (www.itdp.org/pub.html).
International Bike Fund (www.ibike.org) is a non-governmental, nonprofit, advocacy organization, promoting sustainable transport and international understanding.
International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (www.iclei.org) provides tools to help communities become healthier and more environmentally responsible.
International Forum for Rural Transport and Development (IFRTD) (www.gn.apc.org/ifrtd) is a global network of organizations and individuals working to improve accessibility and mobility in rural communities. It also maintains a photo library (www.ifrtd.gn.apc.org/new/res/i_photo.php).
International Institute for Energy Conservation (www.iiec.org) has a number of useful documents
on transport issues in Asia, Latin America, and
International Network for Urban Development (www.inta-aivn.org) encourages the exchange of information, experience and best practices on urban development and renewal across the world.
Rea Janise Kauffman (2001), Paving The Planet: Cars and Crops Competing For Land, Alert, Worldwatch Institute (www.worldwatch.org).
Jeff Kenworthy, Felix Laube, Peter Newman and Paul
Barter (1997), Indicators of Transport
Efficiency in 37 Global Cities, Sustainable Transport Research Group,
J.H. Koster and M. de Langen (eds) (2001), Low-Cost Mobility In African Cities; Report on the Expert Group Meeting on Low-Cost Mobility in African Cities, International Institute for Infrastructure, Hydraulic and Environmental Engineering (www.ihe.nl).
KwaZulu-Natal Department of Transport (www.kzntransport.gov.za) is a good example of a developing country transport agency that provides services and sponsors research.
Todd Litman (1999), Costs of Automobile Dependency, VTPI (www.vtpi.org).
Todd Litman (1998), “Transportation Cost Analysis; Applications in Developed and Developing Countries,” International Journal of Applied Economics and Econometrics, (formerly Indian Journal of Applied Economics), Vol. 7, No. 1, Jan.-Mar. 1998, pp. 115-137.
Todd Litman (2003), “Mobility Management” module (www.vtpi.org/gtz_module.pdf) of
the Sustainable Transport Sourcebook, published by the Sustainable Urban
Transport Project in
Todd Litman and Felix Laube (1999), Automobile Dependency and Economic Development, VTPI (www.vtpi.org).
Todd Litman and Tom Rickert (2005), Evaluating Public Transit Accessibility: ‘Inclusive Design’ Performance Indicators For Public Transportation In Developing Countries, VTPI (www.vtpi.org).
Gerhard Metschies (2001 and 2005), Fuel Prices and Taxation, with Comparative Tables for 160 Countries, German Agency for Technical Cooperation (www.gtz.de); at www.gtz.de/de/dokumente/en_International_Fuel_Prices_2005.pdf).
Mobility in the Developing World and Sustainable Transportation Live (www.movingtheeconomy.ca), by Moving the Economy and the Canadian International Development Agency, is a website that provides information on how developing country cities are applying sustainable transportation principles to help reduce traffic congestion, facility costs, pollution and other transport problems.
Peter Newman and Jeff Kenworthy (1999), Sustainability and Cities; Overcoming Automobile Dependency, Island Press (www.islandpress.org).
K.S. Nesamani and Kaushik Deb (2001), “Private
Vehicle Restraint Measures - Lessons for
Enrique Peñalosa (2005), "The Role Of Transport
In Urban Development Policy," Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for
Policy-makers in Developing Cities, published by the Sustainable Urban Transport Project – Asia (www.sutp.org/download/sourcebookhome.php)
and Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (www.gtz.de).
John Pucher (2005), Nisha Korattyswaroopam, Neha
Mittal and Neenu Ittyerah, “Urban Transport Crisis in
Tom Rickert
(1998 and 2002), Mobility for All; Accessible Transportation
Around the World, and Making Access Happen: Promoting and Planning
Transport For All,
Access Exchange International (www.globalride-sf.org), and the Swedish Institute On Independent Living (www.independentliving.org). These excellent guides provide
information on how to implement Universal Design in
developing as well as developed countries.
Gabriel Roth and Olegario G. Villoria, Jr (2001), “Finances of Commercialized Urban Road Network Subject to Congestion Pricing,” Transportation Research 1747, TRB (www.trb.org), pp. 29-35.
Rural Transport Knowledge Base (www.transport-links.org/rtkb/English\Intro.htm) is a set of reference and training material of the latest thinking and practice in the field of rural transport, including the Rural Transport Policy Toolkit.
Theo Rwebangira (2001), “Cycling in African Cities: Status & Prospects,” World Transport Policy & Practice, Volume 7. No. 2 (www.ecoplan.org/wtpp/wt_index.htm), pp. 7-11.
Bradley Schroeder
(2007), “Doing Business in Africa: The California Bike Coalition Comes of Age,”
Sustainable Transport, No. 19;
Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (www.itdp.org), Fall 2007, pp. 18-30;
at www.itdp.org/documents/st_magazine/ITDP-ST_Magazine-19.pdf.
SDC, Focus On Mobility (www.skat.ch/transweb/news.htm), a newsletter about transportation programs to promote economic development in lower income countries, published by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation.
Niklas Sieber (1997), An Annotated Bibliography on Rural Transport, (IFRTD) (www.gn.apc.org/ifrtd).
Daniel Sperling and Deborah
Salon (2002), Transportation in Developing Countries: An Overview of
Greenhouse Gas Reduction Strategies,
Strategic Policy Options for Sustainable Development Database (www.iges.or.jp/cgi-bin/rispo/index_spo.cgi), Research on Innovative and Strategic Policy Options (RISPO) by the Institute for Global Environmental Studies provides information, recommended best practices and case studies on a wide range of sustainable policies and strategies.
SUSTRAN network (www.geocities.com/sustrannet)
promotes and popularizes people-centred, equitable and sustainable transport,
with a focus on
SusTransSA (www.sustranssa.co.za),
provides sustainable transport information for
Sustainable Urban Transport Project (www.sutp.org) provides practical resources for creating sustainable transport policies and planning practices in developing cities.
Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI) (www.teriin.org) in
John E. Thompson and Katsuhide Nagayama (2005), “Controlled Public Transit Fares in the Developing World: Help or Hindrance to the Urban Poor?,” ITE Journal, Vol. 75, No. 6 (www.ite.org), June 2005, pp. 44-49.
Transport and Rural Infrastructure Learning and Sharing Partnership (TRISP) (www.transport-links.org/trsp-kda), sponsored by the World Bank and UK Department for International Development, seeks to improve access to relevant knowledge for stakeholders in the transport and rural infrastructure sector in developing countries.
Transport For Development Website (www.transport-links.org/transport_links), UK Department for International Development, provides extensive information resources and links to research on developing region transportation.
TransWeb (www.trans-web.ch) by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) is a gateway to knowledge about Mobility & Access in the developing world, particularly in rural areas.
TRL (2004), Enhancing The Mobility Of Disabled People: Guidelines For Practitioners, Overseas Road Note 21, Transportation Research Laboratory, Transport for International Development (www.transport-links.org).
United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (HABITAT) (www.unhabitat.org) provides information on sustainable urban development and transportation.
Eduardo Alcântara Vasconcellos (2001), Urban Transport, Environment And Equity - The Case For Developing Countries, Earthscan (www.earthscan.co.uk).
Vehicle Emission Reductions Website (www.adb.org/vehicle-emissions) by the Asia Development Bank provides a forum for developing countries to share experiences and strategies in reducing vehicle emissions.
Viva Cities (www.vivacities.org) is an international non-governmental organisation that promotes car-free residential areas and business districts, with extensive experience in developing countries.
John Whitelegg and Gary Haq (2003), Earthscan Reader on World Transport Policy & Practice, Earthscan (www.earthscan.co.uk/asp/bookdetails.asp?key=3890). This book includes chapters on a diverse range of transportation policy and planning issues throughout the world.
World Bank Transport Website (www.worldbank.org/transport) includes information on various equity issues.
World Bank (2008), Safe, Clean, and Affordable…Transport for Development: The World Bank Group’s Transport Business Strategy for 2008-2012, World Bank (www.worldbank.org); at http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTTRANSPORT/0,,menuPK:337122~pagePK:149018~piPK:149093~theSitePK:337116,00.html.
World Bank, Background Resource Materials on Transport and Poverty, World Bank (www.worldbank.org/transport/pov&tra_resources.htm), updated occasionally.
World Health Organization Healthy Cities Project (www.who.dk/london99) provides information on international efforts to create healthy cities.
Christopher Zegras and Todd Litman (1997), An Analysis of the Full Costs and Impacts of Transportation in Santiago de Chile, International Institute for Energy Conservation (www.cerf.org/iiec), Santiago.
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