Developing Country TDM
Transportation Demand Management in Lower-Income Regions
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Victoria Transport Policy Institute
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Updated 25 January 2010
This chapter discusses the implementation of TDM in developing (i.e., lower-income) regions. Demand management can be particularly important in such areas due to limited economic resources, diverse transportation systems, equity objectives and environmental conditions. This chapter describes resources available to help implement TDM in developing countries.
Developing Regions (also called Lower Income, Third World or Less Industrialized Countries) are relatively low-income parts of the world. Transportation Demand Management is particularly appropriate in such areas for the following reasons.
Consumers in developing regions have less money to spend on transportation, and so depend more on Affordable Transportation options, such as walking, cycling, animal power, ridesharing, transit and taxi services. Higher transportation costs associated with Automobile Dependency tends to place a financial burden on consumers and reduce the options available to a significant portion of the population.
By definition, developing regions have limited economic resources and so tend to benefit even more from transportation cost savings and efficiency than wealthier regions. For example, a TDM strategy that improves lower-cost travel options may benefit a greater portion of residents in developing than in developed regions.
TDM tends to support Economic Development by encouraging more efficient transportation, as discussed below. Automobile dependency can reduce economic development if it increases overhead costs or reduces the amount of wealth available for industrial investment.
Compared with economically wealthy countries, developing regions usually have less capital but more labor resources, meaning that an economically optimal transportation system will tend to be more labor intensive and less capital intensive than in more developed regions.
Most developing countries rely largely on imported vehicles, and even when they produce their own vehicles a major portion of the components are imported. Many developing countries also rely on imported petroleum. Motor vehicles, parts and fuel constitute a major portion of total imports in most developing countries. Each region or country has limited foreign exchange. Goods imported to support automobile use can reduce economic development and social welfare by crowding out the importation of other goods and services required for industrial development, education, or medical services.
Many experts predict that international fuel prices are likely to increase in the future, as the growth in production decreases while international demand grows, so the economic costs of importing petroleum are likely to increase (Transportation Costs). It is important that developing countries avoid creating an energy intensive transportation system that is vulnerable to such price increases.
Transportation equity in developing countries justifies greater emphasis on balanced transportation, due to the greater portion of the population that do not use automobiles. A policy that benefits motorists at the expense of other road users is more inequitable and imposes greater external costs in a region where only 5% of households own an automobile than where 90% of households do.
Walking, cycling and various forms of public transit are particularly important forms of transportation in many developing regions (Koster and de Langen 2001). Increased automobile use tends to consume resources (road space, transportation facility investments, etc.) and degrade travel conditions for these modes. It is economically inefficient and inequitable to favor automobile transportation if it is only used by a minority of the population, if doing so reduces transportation options used by the majority of the population.
Developing countries often have a wide range of travel modes and needs, including people with disabilities and communication barriers, and various types of handcarts, animal carriage and head loading (Rickert, 2003; TRL, 2004).
Transportation planning involves countless decisions concerning the allocation of public resources and the management of public facilities. These tradeoffs determine the convenience, speed and safety of different modes, and so effectively prioritize transportation activities and the allocation of costs and benefits. Such decisions are often made without explicit consideration of their impacts on travel behavior or overall transportation system efficiency. More Comprehensive Transportation Planning can help decision-makers in developing countries incorporate more appropriate priorities and assumptions. For example, HOV Priority, Nonmotorized Transportation Improvements and Vehicle Restrictions may be more appropriate in developing countries where travel demand is more diverse.
Basic transportation improvements, such as paved roads to rural areas, can provide significant economic development benefits, often far greater than highway capacity expansion in cities. For example, Fan and Chan-Kang (2005) evaluate the contribution roads have made to poverty reduction and economic growth in China over the last two decades. Their analysis indicates that investing in low-quality and rural roads generates larger marginal returns, raise more people out of poverty per yuan invested, and reduce regional development disparity more sharply than investing in major highways.
Automobile-oriented transportation policies tend to result in automobile-dependent land use patterns, which reduces the viability and increases the costs of nonmotorized transportation.
Many developing regions have a limited supply of land which is threatened by the roads and parking required by a high level of automobile ownership (Kauffman 2001). Even countries that have relatively low population densities may have a limited supply of certain types of land, such as high quality agricultural land or certain types of environments.
Sustainable Transportation principles suggest that greater value be placed on developing an efficient and balanced transportation system.
It can be relatively difficult to implement Energy Conservation and Emission Reduction programs in developing regions due to limited funds, technological resources and enforcement institutions. Vehicle fleets in developing regions tend to be older and more poorly maintained than in developed regions, and so pollution emissions per vehicle-mile tend to be greater. As a result, reductions in vehicle use tend to provide greater environmental benefit.
TDM and Smart Growth do not eliminate automobile travel, but they can significantly reduce Automobile Dependency and the amount of automobile travel that occurs for a given level of economic development and wealth. This is particularly important in developing countries where most households cannot afford an automobile, and bear significant costs if transportation systems and land use patterns become automobile oriented.
Vehicles used efficiently in industrial, commercial and community applications can increase productivity and support economic development. For example, a doctor or engineer can often accomplish more in a day if they have a car. But most personal automobile use is a consumer good that provides convenience and Prestige, and does little to increase productivity.
Excessive automobile ownership and use tends to reduce economic development (Litman and Laube 1999; Litman 2009). International research suggests that beyond an optimal level (about 7,500 kilometers of per capita annual motor vehicle travel overall, although this varies depending on geographic and economic factors), the economic costs of increased vehicle travel outweigh the marginal benefits (Kenworthy, et al. 1997).
Personal automobile ownership and use is associated with economic development, but this occurs primarily because economic development increases wealth, which allows these expenditures. There is no evidence that high levels of per capita automobile use increases economic productivity and development. Most developing countries experience their greatest periods of economic growth when the rate of automobile ownership is relatively low, and growth rates generally decline as a country devotes more resources to consumer goods.
High levels of automobile dependency can reduce economic development in several ways. Excessive vehicle expenses, road expenses, congestion, crash costs and pollution can increase overhead costs and damage some forms of economic activity (for example, excessive pollution may reduce tourist industry development). Money spent on automobile transportation diverts wealth that could otherwise be used for industrial investment (Hook 1995).
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Economic Development Impacts of Automobile Expenditures The automobile industry is a major economic sector, so many people assume that vehicle ownership and use stimulate economic development. At one time it may have made sense to encourage automobile use as a way to take advantage of economies of scale in vehicle and road production, and to stimulate development of an automobile industry. During the middle of the Twentieth Century several countries successfully based their economic development on automobile manufacturing.
However, it is production and export of goods that supports economic development, not consumption. Expenditures on automobiles and fuel provide less regional economic development or employment than expenditures on most other goods because they are capital intensive and much of the value is imported from other regions (even if a vehicle is assembled in a developing country, most parts are imported). Although a region may benefit economically from motor vehicle exports, there is no reason to think that domestic consumption of motor vehicles increases economic development.
The automobile industry is now overcapitalized. World vehicle production capacity is expected to exceed demand by 30% or more over the next few years, making vehicle production extremely competitive (The Economist, 1999). As a result, automobile manufacturing is less profitable than many other industries and may become even less profitable in the future. Many other industries now pay comparable or better wages, and manufacturers demand various financial incentives from governments (tax rebates, infrastructure expenditures and training programs) in exchange for locating industrial facilities in a jurisdiction that absorb much of their regional economic benefits. It is now very difficult for countries to develop a profitable and independent vehicle manufacturing industry that will produce significant exports. |
Developing regions vary greatly in their geographic, demographic and economic conditions. TDM Planning should reflect local conditions and needs. Transportation planning in developing countries often requires consideration of special impacts or issues, including impacts that motor vehicle traffic can have on Nonmotorized Transport, domestic and wild animals, land use, cultural and natural sites, Tourism, Safety and various Equity issues. As a result, it is particularly important to involve stakeholders and account for all Costs.
It is important to develop long-term goals and objectives that are realistic, cost effective and equitable. Solutions that may be appropriate in wealthy countries are often less appropriate in developing regions. A major obstacle to TDM planning in developing countries is the assumption that automobile-oriented transportation systems are desirable and inevitable. It is useful to point out that many developed countries are now implementing transportation reforms to create more balanced, less automobile-dependent transportation systems. Developing countries can avoid future problems by implementing such reforms before they become highly automobile dependent.
Most developing regions have relatively balanced transportation systems, with high levels of non-motorized transportation (walking, cycling, animal carts, etc.) and public transit services. Implementing TDM often involves policies that support existing transportation systems and constrain automobile use. This involves applying Market Principles to transportation to avoid underpricing motor vehicle use or favoring it in policies and transportation planning.
One TDM strategy that can be particularly appropriate in developing countries is to eliminate vehicle fuel subsidies (where they exist), and implement, gradual and predictable (less than 10% at any time) long-term Fuel Tax Increases (Metschies 1999). At a minimum, fuel taxes should cover basic roadway expenditures (a minimum tax of about 10¢ per liter), or more to fund other transport sector expenditures (including subsidies for rail and public transit services), and contribute to general funds.
· Base transportation planning on local conditions and needs. Avoid high-cost solutions that reflect the needs and resources in developed countries.
· Develop Accessible land use patterns. Implement Smart Growth practices that encourage efficient development.
· Maintain and develop a balanced transportation system which provides a high level of mobility and access to non-drivers. Avoid policy, planning or investment practices that favor automobile travel over other modes or lead to automobile dependency.
· Value and protect nonmotorized transportation. Invest in Nonmotorized Improvements. Avoid policies and projects that degrade pedestrian and cycling conditions, such as new highways that divide existing communities or eliminate walkways. Use Traffic Calming to control vehicle traffic volumes and speeds, particularly in urban neighborhoods.
· Use Comprehensive Planning. Use Least Cost Planning to maximize transportation system efficiency.
· Account for Environmental, Community Livability and Health factors in transportation planning.
· Use Transportation Planning practices that involve stakeholders in decision making.
· Apply Full Cost Pricing to automobile travel, including Road Pricing, Parking Pricing and appropriate Fuel Taxes or Distance-based Charges.
· Encourage Transportation Choice, including Nonmotorized Improvements, Universal Access, Transit Improvements, Shuttle Services, Ridesharing, Taxi and Carsharing.
· Implement appropriate regulations and restrictions on motor vehicle use, including traffic safety and environmental regulations, Vehicle Restrictions and Car-free Planning. Develop enforcement systems that insure compliance.
· Consider impacts on Nonmotorized Transportation in transportation planning and project evaluation.
· Manage Nonmotorized Facilities to insure efficient and equitable use of sidewalks and paths.
· Use Sustainable Transportation principles.
· Use Tourist Transport Management to minimize economic, social and environmental harm from tourist and recreational travel.
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“Do not think of today’s failures, but of the success that may come tomorrow. You have set yourselves a difficult task, but you will succeed if you persevere; and you will find joy in overcoming obstacles. Remember, no effort that we make to attain something beautiful is ever lost.” – Helen Keller |
Curitiba, capital of the Brazilian state Paraná 400 km south east of São Paulo, has over the last 30 years developed a high-quality, cost-effective public transport system. Today it stands as a model recognized internationally. Insightful, long term planning with several innovative solutions has provided the citizens with an effective system that gives priority to public instead of private transport. It has the highest user rates of all Brazilian state capitals, 75% of all weekday commuters. All this during an unprecedented city growth.
The city of Bogota, Columbia has a diverse program to improve transportation choices and encourage non-automobile modes. They include:
· TransMilenio, a high-capacity public transportation system using articulated buses and convenient, magnetic ticketing.
· Bikeways. 120 existing and 180 planned kilometers of cycle paths.
· Walkways. Construction of sidewalks and shaded walkways (“alamedas”) throughout the city.
· Increased parking fees.
· Pico y Placa. Restrictions on private automobile travel, based on each vehicle’s license-plate number.
· Car-Free Day. An annual Car-Free day.
Because this program includes restrictions on automobile travel it was initially controversial. In October, 2000 a public referendum on the program received more than 62% yes votes indicating a high level of public support.
The majority of Tanzania's urban dwellers face chronic mobility problems including: high proportions of family income needed for daily travel; long travel distances due to fast city growth; a poor route infrastructure network, especially for walking and cycling; and a high number of traffic accidents involving non-motorized transport users.
These problems are even worse for school children, who are sometimes denied access on private buses. Female students are sometimes forced to engage in relationships with male drivers or conductors to facilitate easy entry in the private buses and many children suffer from poor attendance and late arrival at school. The cost of transport also limits access to schools and disrupts education, especially of female pupils.
The Association for Advancing Low Cost Mobility (AALOCOM) was formed to address the mobility needs of Tanzania's urban dwellers, starting with school children. The Safe Routes to School Demonstration Project is in the planning stages at the time of writing, but it is a spectacular example of a community responding to a community problem in a manner that is participatory, broad-based and open. AALOCOM recognizes that the success of the project depends on the participation of the different parties responsible. Using a broad base of stakeholders (parents, teachers, police, NGOs, transportation officials and decision makers), AALOCOM's participatory approach creates a sense of ownership and responsibility around child, pedestrian and cycling safety issues.
The project will be piloted in a medium sized city with significant traffic problems, using schools with a high percentage of children residing 2-3 kilometres away. It will focus on:
Before the Rickshaw Trolley Community Solid Waste Collection system was introduced, solid waste in most of Mirzapur, India was collected from neighborhood streets in handcarts and then dumped in heaps on bigger streets. From these heaps it was lifted onto bullock carts or tractor trolleys by shovel or a hydraulic loader. While being loaded, tractor trolleys blocked traffic on the narrow streets. This was inefficient, unsanitary and undependable since the city could not afford to keep the loader operating and the staff could not manage to lift more than a little bit of the city's garbage. Eventually garbage actually blocked many streets and drains, and obstructed maintenance of the drainage and water supply systems. The public had lost confidence in the city services and there was little money available for new equipment.
Solid waste needed to be lifted from the street to tractor trolleys without hydraulic equipment. To do this the municipality in 1995 designed and introduced a loading platform with an access ramp for direct loading into parked tractor trolleys. Now 10 collection depots manage the city's daily solid waste. They use available space along street rights-of-way and do not interfere with traffic movement. To make operation of the depots feasible, the service area had to be increased. This was achieved through the introduction of a three-wheeled rickshaw trolley with a modified frame for easier pedaling, and a tilting bin for easy unloading, designed and built by local workshops. These easy to move rickshaw trolleys have twice the capacity of handcarts and double their service area to 400 meters.
This low-cost system has eliminated the need for hydraulic lifting throughout the city and dramatically reduced staff physical contact with solid waste. The improvement in city appearance has changed the public attitude toward the city. In addition, the municipality has even donated a rickshaw trolley for replication to the city of Aligarh, provided technical assistance to numerous municipalities from India and Nepal, and is exploring opportunities for private processing of compost.
The Accra bike tools program is a project of the Village Bicycle Project (VBP), a small non-profit organization dedicated to improving access to bicycles in Africa. The bike tools program delivers tools to bike mechanics while working towards developing the market for their long term supply. In 1999 VBP discovered that Accra, Ghana held a major supply center for used parts in the sub-region and that the majority of Accra's bike mechanics were not aware of tools specialized for bicycle repairs. They relied on hammers and chisels to remove and install parts, with high breakage in the process.
So in 2000, VBP brought about $1000 worth of bike tools, and began to show them to the bike mechanics. Many were initially wary to pay for tools they had never seen so VBP sold them well below cost. As one mechanic said, "These tools help my business very much. It was very difficult to rebuild a rear wheel before, you usually would break the free [freewheel] before it would come off; a new free [freewheel] costs 22,000 Cedis [US $4]. I use the free remover twice and it is paid for."
The Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP) donated tools the following year, and as mechanics became more familiar with the tools, they were willing to pay higher prices. By the end of 2001, prices for some tools had reached wholesale US prices. ITDP then was able connect tools suppliers in Asia with our partners in Ghana, and loaned them $1000 for purchase. Once they had established good credit with the tools program, the VBP extended $4,000 worth of used bicycles to two Accra mechanics. They refurbished and resold the bicycles, and netted $1,500 after repaying VBP for the bicycles.
Growing motor vehicle ownership and use are imposing signifcant costs on the Malaysian economy and environment. Kasipillai and Chan (2008) recommend a Transport Development Management-based approach to create more sustainable transportation:
1. Alteration of charges on road taxes and car insurance,
2. Elimination of fuel subsidies,
3. Imposition of fuel taxes and amendments in the bases for car taxation,
4. Congestion charging, particularly in Kuala Lumpur, and
5. National road pricing.
A study of potential road pricing in Manila, Philippines calculates that an optimal congestion charge of 6 to 14 pesos per vehicle-km would reduce traffic volumes by 11-24% and increase traffic speeds 44-101%. Estimates total revenues of from congestion fees and a 40 peso per day charge for commercial parking could provide total revenues of 12.6 to 25.5 billion pesos annually to fund a regional transportation authority.
In tackling transport and
rural development issues, Ghana faces a host of common challenges:
environmental degradation; urban gridlock; the cost of road repair and fuel;
health problems for women from carrying heavy loads; and a shortage of foreign
exchange for vehicles, parts and construction equipment. Fortunately, Ghana has chosen some innovative projects designed to address these issues in a way that
meets the needs of the government, its citizens, and the environment. It is
hoped that by improving rural quality-of-life, urbanization trends and the
demand for expensive urban infrastructure can be reduced. Three current
projects are briefly profiled here.
1. New Road Design. The Department of Roads & Highways is now
designing rural roads using new standards taking into account the needs of the
generally non-motor vehicle using population. One readily apparent result of
the change is a 'single-blade' (4m or 13ft) compacted road. But the far more
important products of the program are the change in the production process and
the changes to social structure and the resource base and allocation -- because
of the changes in design standards, a road can be built most economically by
labor intensive methods (costing 10-15% less than with mechanical methods),
more rural employment is generated and there is growth in the local economy
supplying the projects.
The road program also
includes a street-tree component, where citizens plant and maintain trees on
both sides of the road, providing great relief to non-motorized travelers.
Wells for safe drinking water are being drilled as part of the program.
2. Transportation Rehabilitation Project. One aspect of this project is
the development and initial production of 250 bicycle trailers and promotion of
bicycles for women. Surveys of women show that the equipment was readily
accepted as a substitute for head-portage. Women have avidly taken to using the
bicycle and trailer and there has been no cultural resistance to the change.
The main problem identified is a lack of money or access to credit to buy the
vehicles. This obstacle is being overcome by the purchase of the trailers by
local NGO's, who then sell them to community members on installment payback
schemes.
3. The Ministry Of Local Government's Bicycle Program. Ghana is currently pursuing a decentralization and democratization process, but many of the
7,260 members and staff members of the new district assemblies have had trouble
attending assembly and committee meetings and visiting constituents. The
problem is most acute in the north where some areas are served by vehicles only
once a week, roads are bad and bridges are weak. There are reports of assembly
workers walking 50 km (31 miles) to perform assembly functions. However, the
distances involved are moderate for bicycles, the terrain is flat and the
weather lends itself to use of bicycles. Starting in 3 districts, the project
is making bicycles available through a revolving fund on a hire-to-purchase
plan. The program is starting with 200 one speed roadster bikes with the goal
of getting 1000 bicycles.
The Transportation Rehabilitation program has met with good success and is now
spurring employment by encouraging local entrepreneurs to produce trailers. The
LG bicycle project is encouraging employment generation by training local youth
to assemble, repair and maintain the bicycles. The road design program has so
far trained 35 private contractors, employing over 3000 people. The target is
for 70% of the employees to be women and to combine the employment with
nutrition education and vitamin and mineral supplement (iron was specifically mentioned
for women.) Each employee works for about 3 months, receives food and
vitamin/mineral subsidies, earns US$145 and has access to a savings plan to buy
a bicycle to use on the new roads. The education and coordination of the
program is provided by local NGO's, helping to strengthen these community
organizations and insure their long term presence in the community.
Recognizing the need for good-quality bicycles in African cities, the Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP) teamed with US industry experts and independent African bike dealers to create the “Los Angeles Bike,” a six-speed utilitarian bicycle, the first in a series of bicycles to be designed under the California Bike name. By shouldering the risk of importing and distributing the bicycle throughout Africa, ITDP has begun bridging the gap between the small independent bicycle dealer and the international bicycle industry. Established in 2003, the California Bike Coalition (CBC) is a network of small independent bicycle dealers in Ghana, Senegal, South Africa and Tanzania. The aim of the network is to:
In addition to filling the existing need for good-quality bicycles in the general public, ITDP works to enable ownership for people who cannot afford a new bicycle. Employers throughout Africa are encouraging their employees to use bicycles by setting up Employee Purchase Programs (EPPs). This financing program allows employees to purchase California Bikes by paying for the bikes over time through paycheck deductions. Government agencies, healthcare organizations, and other groups also purchase bicycles for employees to use on the job or for commuting to and from work. ITDP helps facilitate these purchases and gives bike maintenance classes to new owners of California Bikes. Over 7,000 California Bikes have been distributed through the independent bicycle dealer network.
The Global Environment Facility (GEF), in cooperation with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the World Bank and other development organizations has implemented a Small Grants Programme that supports community-based initiatives to encourage sustainable transportation development. Lessons and experiences documented demonstrate that community initiatives play an important role in testing new approaches, raising awareness of new ideas, piloting innovative strategies, and informing and stimulating policy dialogue in a cost-effective way.
For instance, community initiatives with local civil society organizations in Pune, India, prompted a policy shift by the city towards supporting bus rapid transit and the development of pedestrian and cycling infrastructure. In Chiang Mai, Thailand, the municipal government is re-allocating a portion of its transport funds towards non-motorized transport infrastructure. In other cases (e.g., Sri Lanka, Nepal, Kyrgyzstan, Poland, Jordan, Egypt, and Lithuania), sustainable transport community projects have resulted in government policy shifts and stimulated commercial activities, leading to sustainable strategies for addressing local transport challenges while benefiting the global climate.
The report Footfalls: Obstacle Course To Livable Cities (CSE 2009) evaluates walking conditions in Indian cities. Although walking represents 16% to 57% of urban trips, walking conditions are poor, with little investment, insufficient road space, and inadequate design and maintenance standards. The study argues that inadequate support for nonmotorized travel is inefficient and inequitable.
Table 1 Indian Cities Mode Split, 2007 (Wilbur Smith 2008)
|
City Category |
City Population |
Walk |
Bicycle |
Motor-cycle |
Public Transport |
Car |
Auto Rickshaw |
|
Category-1a |
<500,000, plain terrain |
34 |
3 |
26 |
5 |
27 |
5 |
|
Category-1b |
<500,000, hilly terrain |
57 |
1 |
6 |
8 |
28 |
0 |
|
Category-2 |
500,000-1,000,000 |
32 |
20 |
24 |
9 |
12 |
3 |
|
Category-3 |
1,000,000-2,000,000 |
24 |
19 |
24 |
13 |
12 |
8 |
|
Category-4 |
2,000,000-4,000,000 |
25 |
18 |
29 |
10 |
12 |
6 |
|
Category-5 |
4,000,000-8,000,000 |
25 |
11 |
26 |
21 |
10 |
7 |
|
National |
|
28 |
11 |
16 |
27 |
13 |
6 |
This table indicates the mode split in Indian cities. Walking is the dominant mode but receives little consideration in transport planning and investment.
The study developed a Transport Performance Index for evaluating urban transportation systems and prioritizing system improvements in Indian cities. It consists of the following factors:
· Public Transport Accessibility Index (the inverse of the average distance (in km) to the nearest bus stop/railway station (suburban/metro).
· Service Accessibility Index (% of Work trips accessible in 15 minutes time).
· Congestion Index (average peak-period journey speed relative to a target journey speed).
· Walkability Index (quantity and quality of walkways relative to roadway lengths).
· City Bus Transport Supply Index (bus service supply per capita).
· Para-Transit Supply Index (para-transit vehicle supply per capita).
· Safety Index (1/traffic fatalities per 100,000 residents).
· Slow Moving Vehicle (Cycling) Index (availability of cycling facilities and cycling mode share).
· On-street Parking Interference Index (1/(portion of major road length used for on-street parking + on-street parking demand).
Times of India, by Nitin Sethi & Mahendra Kumar Singh, 15 Dec 2008
NEW DELHI: Owning and using private vehicles could become a lot tougher if proposals made by the National Action Plan on Climate Change are implemented.
Alarmed by the burgeoning growth of private vehicles in Indian cities and the resultant rise in fuel emissions, a panel under the action plan has suggested a slew of measures that promise to change the face of urban transport. At the heart of these recommendations is the understanding that all-round costs of using personal vehicles need to be raised even as public transport is strengthened.
The measures - proposed by the Mission on Sustainable Habitat under the action plan being prepared by the urban development ministry -include making ownership of parking space compulsory for those wishing to buy new private vehicles, making parking fee reflect the cost of land, imposing a congestion charge and making parts of the city off limits for cars.
The mission document is being prepared to detail what the PM's council on climate change had passed in principle a few months ago. The report notes that growth of registered vehicles is four times the rate of growth of population in six major metros - Delhi, Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Mumbai and Chennai. Simultaneously the share of public transport has declined from 69% to 38% in the 1994-2007 period in cities with population above 4 million.
It warns that the fuel consumption for road vehicles, if unchecked, would be six times the 2005 level by 2035 and greenhouse gas emissions would go up 5.8 times in the 30-year period. The mission has recommended dedicating select corridors to only public transport, limiting the availability of parking space in city centres, banning parking on arterial roads, charging higher parking rates at peak hours, make street parking steep and reducing the use of diesel propelled private vehicles besides other measures.
While this may seem like a wish list many experts have recommended before, as part of the climate change action plan, many of these ideas have a good chance of getting implemented for the first time. The mission document is to be shared with the PM's climate change council before it gets operational.
"The Centre provides funds for urban development. We would build these into the city and municipal plans that we fund in consultation with states and the respective cities," said a senior official in the urban development ministry, explaining how the recommendations would be turned into regulations.
The mission document also recommends creation of a regulatory body which will lay down minimum basic service standards for the industry, impose heavy fines, suspend or even cancel licenses and prosecute the erring agencies or individuals. There's also a proposal for a dedicated urban transport fund to pump money into running public transport better in urban areas.
Endorsing the moves by the power ministry, it has also backed the imposition of tough fuel efficiency norms for vehicles and gone further to recommend that government's purchase of vehicles should be done keeping fuel efficiency in mind. To back innovation and improvement in technology the mission has asked for fiscal incentives linked to fuel economy of the vehicles.
By Philip P. Pan, Washington Post Foreign Service, Monday, March 12, 2001
BEIJING - For nearly half a century, multitudes of cyclists packed the dusty boulevards of Chinese cities, an image as evocative of the nation's identity as the Great Wall or the giant panda. Now, after decades of steady increases, the number of bicycles on China's streets has begun to fall.
The turnaround is a small milestone in the rapid transformation of Chinese life, one that provokes mixed feelings among Chinese about how their country is changing as its economy grows. Applauded by those who see the automobile as a symbol of progress, the bike's decline is mourned by environmentalists and others who yearn for a time when the streets were not so crowded and people were not so busy. And like so much else in modern China, the dispute is colored by a touch of class conflict.
"Ordinary people like us can't afford cars," Song grumbled. "We ride bicycles." The bicycle still has not gone the way of the rickshaw. It remains the primary mode of transportation for millions, and there are nearly twice as many bicycles in China -- 540 million -- as there are people in the United States. But riding one is more of a hassle than ever.
Cars rule the roads now, spewing exhaust into cyclists' faces, pushing them into crowded side lanes and striking them with startling frequency. Housing reform has led people to move farther from their jobs, making bicycle commutes increasingly impractical. And modern young women choosing skirts instead of pants are giving up their bikes for rapidly expanding bus and subway lines.
Less than a decade ago, residents of Beijing mounted their bicycles for 60 percent of all trips in the city, according to Chinese traffic studies. Today, the figure is down to 40 percent. Farther south, in Shanghai and Guangzhou, it has dropped to as low as 20 percent.
"It's not the same anymore," sighed Yeh Nong, 43, a government worker browsing in one of Beijing's last used-bicycle shops. "When I was young, we used to spend the weekends riding through the city to the Summer Palace. It was a wonderful feeling. Now, riding a bicycle is more dangerous. And the air is terrible. When you get home, your nose and mouth are black with soot. Who wants to do it anymore?"
Bicycle production has been falling since 1995, and almost all the bikes made in China now are exported. Barely 1 million were produced for sale here in 1999, compared with more than 30 million just five years earlier, according to government statistics. At the same time, China has been promoting car ownership to boost the nation's auto industry and give the country a more modern image. Car sales are up 15 percent a year. In Beijing alone, the number of cars has nearly tripled to 1.6 million since 1993.
But because road construction has not kept pace, the result has been a traffic mess that makes the Capital Beltway at rush hour look like a walk in the park. Cars trying to escape gridlock sneak into the bike lanes. Cyclists dash through intersections, dodging traffic. Chinese engineers like to tell stories about Western traffic experts who arrive brimming with solutions only to depart, shaking their heads in despair.
More often than not, city leaders have sided with the cars. In Guangzhou, they tried to outlaw bikes from downtown completely in 1993, but a popular outcry led to a partial ban instead. In Shanghai, there are plans to force bicycles out of the city center by 2010, and most major streets are already off limits during rush hour.
Even in Beijing, home to 11 million bicycles, more than any other city in the world, police are experimenting with a ban on a jammed street about a mile northwest of the Forbidden City. An officer there orders bicyclists to dismount; they often respond with colorful curses.
"These roads used to be ours," said Du Xiaoying, 40, sneaking down the street on her black Flying Pigeon bicycle. "Now, the cars have taken over. They drive too fast. They even park in our lanes. There's nothing we can do."
Traffic accidents are up sharply, with the number of fatalities rising by 70 percent in the past decade to more than 83,000 last year, making China's roads among the world's deadliest. Studies estimate that about a third of those killed are bicyclists; no one wears a helmet in China.
Naturally, the bicyclists blame the people driving cars. But the drivers insist the bicyclists are reckless, pointing out they do not need a license or a traffic-safety course to ride a bike.
"I've never hit a bicycle, but they hit me all the time," complained cabby Liu Jianshu, 38, as a bicyclist careered across three lanes of traffic in front of him. "A lot of these people, they're living in the past. They just go wherever they want, no matter what the rules are, because they could do that before."
Like many drivers, Liu has no patience for bicycle nostalgia. "What kind of country would we be if we were all still riding bicycles? This is progress. This is development," he said. "Who wants to ride a bicycle when you can drive a car?"
Many Chinese agree. A recent survey in 20 cities by the Association of Chinese Customers found a third of urban families plan to buy a car within five years. Another study found most people consider knowing how to drive a car to be one of three "basic and necessary skills in modern Chinese society," along with the ability to speak English and use a computer.
Such attitudes alarm environmentalists. They warn that if the percentage of the population owning cars in China reaches Western levels, there would be more automobiles here than in the rest of the world combined. Air pollution in many Chinese cities is already several times above World Health Organization standards. It, and cigarette smoking, make lung disease the leading cause of death in China.
Problems like this have led many of China's leaders to a new appreciation of the bicycle, said Liu Xiaoming, one of the nation's leading traffic engineers. "It's clean. It saves energy. It's good for people's health. And it's more reliable than public transportation," he said. "We can't get rid of the bicycle completely even if we tried."
Access; the Sustainable Transport Forum (www.ecoplan.org/com_index.htm) is an information network dedicated to exploring and promoting sustainable transportation.
Access Exchange International (www.globalride-sf.org) is a non-profit organization that promotes cost-effective access to public transportation for disabled persons in developing countries.
Qureshi Intikhab Ahmed, Huapu Lu and Shi Ye (2008), “Urban Transportation and Equity: A Case Study of Beijing and Karachi,” Transportation Research A, Vol. 42, Issue 1 (www.elsevier.com/locate/tra), January 2008, pp. 125-139.
Madhav G. Badami (2006), “The Urban Transport Challenge In India Considerations, Implications And Strategies,” International Development Planning Review (IDPR), Liverpool University Press (www.liverpool-unipress.co.uk), Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 169-194.
Rahman Paul Barter and Tamim Raad (2000), Taking Steps: A Community Action Guide to People-Centred, Equitable and Sustainable Urban Transport, Sustainable Transport Action Network for Asia and the Pacific (www.geocities.com/sustrannet).
Andrea Broaddus, Todd Litman and Gopinath Menon (2009), Training Document On Transportation Demand Management, Sustainable Urban Transport Project (www.sutp.org) and GTZ (www.gtz.de).
Major Desman Brown (2006), Urban Public Bus Transportation in Developing Countries: A Roadmap For Successful Planning, Desmon Brown (www.desmonbrown.com).
Jodi Browne, Eduardo Sanhueza, Erin Silsbe, Steve Winkleman and Chris Zegras (2005), Getting on Track: Finding a Path for Transportation in the CDM (Clean Development Mechanism), International Institute for Sustainable Development (www.iisd.org/pdf/2005/climate_chile_getting_on_track.pdf). This report explains how a Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) can encourage more efficient transportation policies in developing countries.
Centre For Science And Environment (CSE) (www.cseindia.org) is a network of professionals interested in environmental and sustainable development issues, located in New Delhi, India.
Robert Cervero (2005), “Progressive Transportation and the Poor: Bogota's Bold Steps Forward,” ACCESS, Number 27 (www.uctc.net), Fall 2005, pp. 24-30.
Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) (www.worldbank.org/wbi/cleanair/caiasia) promotes and demonstrates innovative ways to improve the air quality of Asian cities through partnerships and sharing experiences.
John Cracknell (2000), Experience in Urban Traffic Management and Demand Management in Developing Countries, World Bank, Urban Transport Strategy Review (http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/transport/utsr.nsf).
S. L., Cullinane, and K.P.B. Cullinane (1997), ‘Increasing Car Ownership and Use in Egypt: The Straw That Breaks the Camel’s Back?’, International Journal of Transport Economics, February, 1995, Vol. XXII, No. 1, pp. 35-63.
CSE (2009), Footfalls: Obstacle Course To Livable Cities, Right To Clean Air Campaign, Centre For Science And Environment (www.cseindia.org).
Joyce Dargay, Dermot Gately and Martin Sommer (2007), Vehicle Ownership and Income Growth, Worldwide: 1960-2030, New York University; at www.econ.nyu.edu/dept/courses/gately/DGS_Vehicle%20Ownership_2007.pdf.
Jonathan Dawson and Ian Barwell (1993), Roads Are Not Enough, Intermediate Technology Publications (www.itdg.org).
DFID (www.transport-links.org) by the UK Department for International Development presents information about transport-related strategies for supporting development in lower-income countries. The DFID-sponsored report Social Benefits in Transport Planning (www.transport-links.org/transport_links/projects/projects_document_page.asp?projectid=322), describes methodologies for more comprehensive transportation project evaluation.
Harry Dimitriou (1992), Urban Transport Planning; A Developmental Approach, Routledge (NY).
Economist (1999), “The Car Industry” The Economist, 13 Feb., pp. 23-25.
P. Elsenaar and S. Abouraad (2005), Road Safety Best Practices - Examples and Recommendations, Global Road Safety Partnership (www.grsproadsafety.org); at www.grsproadsafety.org/themes/default/pdfs/Road%20Safety%20Best%20Practices.pdf. This manual describes specific measures for reducing roadway risk, particularly in developing counties. It covers: Campaign and Enforcement, Awareness and Partnership, Crash Databases, Treatment of Black Spots, Road Design and Speed Management, Heath and Road Safety, and Prehospital Care.
EMBARQ (www.embarq.wri.org/en/index.aspx) promotes environmentally and financially sustainable transport solutions to improve quality of life in cities.
Equity Watch (www.cseindia.org/html/cmp/climate/ew/index.htm) is a climate change newsletter from the Southern perspective.
Shenggen Fan and Connie Chan-Kang (2005), Road Development, Economic Growth, And Poverty Reduction In China, International Food Policy Research Institute (www.ifpri.org/pubs/abstract/abstr138.htm).
Fix The City Blog (http://thecityfix.com) provides information on urban transportation improvements, particularly in developing countries.
GEF (2006), Environmentally Sustainable Transport And Climate Change: Experiences And Lessons From Community Initiatives, Global Environment Facility (www.undp.org); at www.undp.org/sgp/download/GEF_SGP_Sustainable_Transport_and_Climate_Change.pdf.
Global Development Research Center (www.gdrc.org/uem) provides extensive resources for development planning and evaluation.
Global Environment Facility (http://gefweb.org/main.htm) helps developing countries fund sustainable development projects that also protect the global environment, including several urban transportation improvement programs.
Global Road Safety Partnership (www.grsproadsafety.org) is an international partnership of private companies, government agencies and research organizations working to improve road safety in developing and transition countries.
Global Transport Knowledge Partnership (www.gtkp.com) provides resources and support to help transport practitioners in developing countries participate actively in, and contribute to, policy and technical developments globally.
GTZ (2003), Sustainable Transportation: A Sourcebook for Policy-Makers in Developing Countries, (www.sutp.org), by the Sustainable Urban Transport Project – Asia (www.sutp-asia.org) and Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (www.gtz.de). Users are required to register, but there is no charge and the documents may be downloaded free. Many of these documents are now available in various languages including Spanish, French, Chinese, Indonesian, Romanian, Thai and Vietnamese. The Mobility Management module is available at the VTPI website (www.vtpi.org/gtz_module.pdf). Preserving and Expanding the Role of Non-motorized Transport: Sustainable Transportation is available at the Institute for Transportation and Development Policy website (www.itdp.org/STe/STe4/readSTe4/NMT.PDF).
Kevin Heaslip and Dwayne Henclewood (2008), Effects of Increased Transit Efficiency on Mobility in Small Developing Countries: Case Study in Kingston, Jamaica, Transportation Research Board 87th Annual Meeting (www.trb.org).
Walter Hook (1995), ‘Economic Importance of Nonmotorized Transportation,’ Transportation Research Record 1487, TRB (www.trb.org), pp. 14-21.
I-ce (2000), The Significance of Non-Motorised Transport for Developing Countries: Strategies for Policy Development, World Bank, Urban Transport Strategy Review (http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/transport/utsr.nsf).
Indevelopment (www.indevelopment.nl) provides information planning and evaluation for international development, including guidance on transportation planning and investments.
Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (www.itdp.org) promotes socially equitable and environmentally sustainable transportation policies and projects worldwide. The ITDP publishes a quarterly on-line newsletter, TransportActions, available free at their website. ITDP provides several useful documents on its website (www.itdp.org/pub.html).
International Bike Fund (www.ibike.org) is a non-governmental, nonprofit, advocacy organization, promoting sustainable transport and international understanding.
International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (www.iclei.org) provides tools to help communities become healthier and more environmentally responsible.
International Forum for Rural Transport and Development (IFRTD) (www.gn.apc.org/ifrtd) is a global network of organizations and individuals working to improve accessibility and mobility in rural communities. It also maintains a photo library (www.ifrtd.gn.apc.org/new/res/i_photo.php).
International Institute for Energy Conservation (www.iiec.org) has a number of useful documents on transport issues in Asia, Latin America, and Europe.
International Network for Urban Development (www.inta-aivn.org) encourages the exchange of information, experience and best practices on urban development and renewal across the world.
Rea Janise Kauffman (2001), Paving The Planet: Cars and Crops Competing For Land, Alert, Worldwatch Institute (www.worldwatch.org).
Jeff Kenworthy, Felix Laube, Peter Newman and Paul Barter (1997), Indicators of Transport Efficiency in 37 Global Cities, Sustainable Transport Research Group, Murdoch University (Perth; wwwistp.murdoch.edu.au), for the World Bank (www.worldbank.org).
Jeyapalan Kasipillai and Pikkay Chan (2008), “Travel Demand Management: Lessons for Malaysia,” Journal of Public Transportation, Vol. 11, No. 3, (www.nctr.usf.edu), pp. 41-55.
J.H. Koster and M. de Langen (eds) (2001), Low-Cost Mobility In African Cities; Report on the Expert Group Meeting on Low-Cost Mobility in African Cities, International Institute for Infrastructure, Hydraulic and Environmental Engineering (www.ihe.nl).
KwaZulu-Natal Department of Transport (www.kzntransport.gov.za) is a good example of a developing country transport agency that provides services and sponsors research.
Todd Litman (1999), Costs of Automobile Dependency, VTPI (www.vtpi.org).
Todd Litman (1998), “Transportation Cost Analysis; Applications in Developed and Developing Countries,” International Journal of Applied Economics and Econometrics, (formerly Indian Journal of Applied Economics), Vol. 7, No. 1, Jan.-Mar. 1998, pp. 115-137.
Todd Litman (2003), “Mobility Management” module (www.vtpi.org/gtz_module.pdf) of the Sustainable Transport Sourcebook, published by the Sustainable Urban Transport Project in Asia (www.sutp.org) and GTZ (www.gtz.de); at www.vtpi.org/gtz_module.pdf.
Todd Litman (2009), Evaluating Transportation Economic Development Impacts, VTPI (www.vtpi.org); at www.vtpi.org/econ_dev.pdf.
Todd Litman and Felix Laube (1999), Automobile Dependency and Economic Development, VTPI (www.vtpi.org).
Todd Litman and Tom Rickert (2005), Evaluating Public Transit Accessibility: ‘Inclusive Design’ Performance Indicators For Public Transportation In Developing Countries, VTPI (www.vtpi.org).
Gerhard Metschies (2001 and 2005), Fuel Prices and Taxation, with Comparative Tables for 160 Countries, German Agency for Technical Cooperation (www.gtz.de); at www.gtz.de/de/dokumente/en_International_Fuel_Prices_2005.pdf).
Mobility in the Developing World and Sustainable Transportation Live (www.movingtheeconomy.ca), by Moving the Economy and the Canadian International Development Agency, is a website that provides information on how developing country cities are applying sustainable transportation principles to help reduce traffic congestion, facility costs, pollution and other transport problems.
Peter Newman and Jeff Kenworthy (1999), Sustainability and Cities; Overcoming Automobile Dependency, Island Press (www.islandpress.org).
K.S. Nesamani and Kaushik Deb (2001), “Private Vehicle Restraint Measures - Lessons for India,” World Transport Policy & Practice, Vol. 7, No. 1 (www.ecoplan.org/wtpp/wt_index.htm), pp. 27-31.
Sangjune Park (2009), “KRW 53 Trillion (5.4% of GDP), “Estimates of the External Costs of Transport in 2007,” KOTI World-Brief, Vol. 1, No. 3, Korea Transport Institute (www.koti.re.kr), July 2009, pp. 8-10; at http://english.koti.re.kr/upload/eng_publication_regular/World-Brief03.pdf.
Enrique Peñalosa (2005), "The Role Of Transport In Urban Development Policy," Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities, published by the Sustainable Urban Transport Project – Asia (www.sutp.org/download/sourcebookhome.php) and Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (www.gtz.de).
John Pucher (2005), Nisha Korattyswaroopam, Neha Mittal and Neenu Ittyerah, “Urban Transport Crisis in India,” Transport Policy, Vol. 12, Issue 3; (http://policy.rutgers.edu/papers/26.pdf).
John Pucher and Ralph Buehler (2009), “Sustainable Transport that Works: Lessons from Germany,” World Transport Policy and Practice, Vol. 15, No. 1, May, pp. 13-46 (www.eco-logica.co.uk/pdf/wtpp15.1.pdf).
Tom Rickert (1998 and 2002), Mobility for All; Accessible Transportation Around the World, and Making Access Happen: Promoting and Planning Transport For All, Access Exchange International (www.globalride-sf.org), and the Swedish Institute On Independent Living (www.independentliving.org). These excellent guides provide information on how to implement Universal Design in developing as well as developed countries.
Gabriel Roth and Olegario G. Villoria, Jr (2001), “Finances of Commercialized Urban Road Network Subject to Congestion Pricing,” Transportation Research 1747, TRB (www.trb.org), pp. 29-35.
Rural Transport Knowledge Base (www.transport-links.org/rtkb/English\Intro.htm) is a set of reference and training material of the latest thinking and practice in the field of rural transport, including the Rural Transport Policy Toolkit.
Theo Rwebangira (2001), “Cycling in African Cities: Status & Prospects,” World Transport Policy & Practice, Volume 7. No. 2 (www.ecoplan.org/wtpp/wt_index.htm), pp. 7-11.
Bradley Schroeder (2007), “Doing Business in Africa: The California Bike Coalition Comes of Age,” Sustainable Transport, No. 19; Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (www.itdp.org), Fall 2007, pp. 18-30; at www.itdp.org/documents/st_magazine/ITDP-ST_Magazine-19.pdf.
SDC, Focus On Mobility (www.skat.ch/transweb/news.htm), a newsletter about transportation programs to promote economic development in lower income countries, published by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation.
Niklas Sieber (1997), An Annotated Bibliography on Rural Transport, (IFRTD) (www.gn.apc.org/ifrtd).
Daniel Sperling and Deborah Salon (2002), Transportation in Developing Countries: An Overview of Greenhouse Gas Reduction Strategies, Pew Center on Global Climate Change (www.pewclimate.org/projects/transportation_overview.cfm).
Strategic Policy Options for Sustainable Development Database (www.iges.or.jp/cgi-bin/rispo/index_spo.cgi), Research on Innovative and Strategic Policy Options (RISPO) by the Institute for Global Environmental Studies provides information, recommended best practices and case studies on a wide range of sustainable policies and strategies.
SUSTRAN network (www.geocities.com/sustrannet) promotes and popularizes people-centred, equitable and sustainable transport, with a focus on Asia and the Pacific. Provides useful information on implementing TDM in developing countries.
SusTransSA (www.sustranssa.co.za), provides sustainable transport information for South Africa. It is sponsored by Transportek, the transport division of the South African Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).
Sustainable Urban Transport Project (www.sutp.org) provides practical resources for creating sustainable transport policies and planning practices in developing cities.
Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI) (www.teriin.org) in New Delhi, India, is the largest sustainable development research institution located in the developing world.
Nadaa Taiyab (2008), “Transportation in Mega-Cities: A Local Issue, A Global Question,” Issues In Brief, Number 4, The Frederick S. Pardee Center for the Study of the Longer-Range Future, Boston University; at www.bu.edu/pardee/documents/BU-Pardee-Policy-Paper-004-Megacities.pdf.
John E. Thompson and Katsuhide Nagayama (2005), “Controlled Public Transit Fares in the Developing World: Help or Hindrance to the Urban Poor?,” ITE Journal, Vol. 75, No. 6 (www.ite.org), June 2005, pp. 44-49.
Transport and Rural Infrastructure Learning and Sharing Partnership (TRISP) (www.transport-links.org/trsp-kda), sponsored by the World Bank and UK Department for International Development, seeks to improve access to relevant knowledge for stakeholders in the transport and rural infrastructure sector in developing countries.
Transport For Development Website (www.transport-links.org/transport_links), UK Department for International Development, provides extensive information resources and links to research on developing region transportation.
TransWeb (www.trans-web.ch) by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) is a gateway to knowledge about Mobility & Access in the developing world, particularly in rural areas.
TRL (2004), Enhancing The Mobility Of Disabled People: Guidelines For Practitioners, Overseas Road Note 21, Transportation Research Laboratory, Transport for International Development (www.transport-links.org).
United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (HABITAT) (www.unhabitat.org) provides information on sustainable urban development and transportation.
Eduardo Alcântara Vasconcellos (2001), Urban Transport, Environment And Equity - The Case For Developing Countries, Earthscan (www.earthscan.co.uk).
Vehicle Emission Reductions Website (www.adb.org/vehicle-emissions) by the Asia Development Bank provides a forum for developing countries to share experiences and strategies in reducing vehicle emissions.
Viva Cities (www.vivacities.org) is an international non-governmental organisation that promotes car-free residential areas and business districts, with extensive experience in developing countries.
John Whitelegg and Gary Haq (2003), Earthscan Reader on World Transport Policy & Practice, Earthscan (www.earthscan.co.uk/asp/bookdetails.asp?key=3890). This book includes chapters on a diverse range of transportation policy and planning issues throughout the world.
Wilbur Smith (2008), Traffic & Transportation Policies and Strategies in Urban Areas in India, Ministry of Urban Development (www.urbanindia.nic.in); at http://urbanindia.nic.in/moud/programme/ut/Traffic_transportation.pdf.
World Bank Transport Website (www.worldbank.org/transport) includes information on various equity issues.
World Bank (2008), Safe, Clean, and Affordable…Transport for Development: The World Bank Group’s Transport Business Strategy for 2008-2012, World Bank (www.worldbank.org); at http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTTRANSPORT/0,,menuPK:337122~pagePK:149018~piPK:149093~theSitePK:337116,00.html.
World Bank, Background Resource Materials on Transport and Poverty, World Bank (www.worldbank.org/transport/pov&tra_resources.htm), updated occasionally.
World Health Organization Healthy Cities Project (www.who.dk/london99) provides information on international efforts to create healthy cities.
Lloyd Wright (2007), Bus Rapid Transit Planning Guide, Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (www.itdp.org); at www.itdp.org/index.php/microsite/brt_planning_guide.
Christopher Zegras and Todd Litman (1997), An Analysis of the Full Costs and Impacts of Transportation in Santiago de Chile, International Institute for Energy Conservation (www.cerf.org/iiec), Santiago.
This Encyclopedia is produced by the Victoria Transport Policy Institute to help improve understanding of Transportation Demand Management. It is an ongoing project. Please send us your comments and suggestions for improvement.
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