Rural Transportation Management
Improving Transportation Efficiency and Diversity in Rural Areas
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Victoria Transport Policy Institute
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Updated 9 May 2010
This chapter describes transportation management strategies suitable for implementation in lower-density rural and suburban areas. These can help achieve a variety of objectives, including improved transportation options, increased transportation affordability, reduced congestion and parking problems associated with tourism and special events, and flexibility to help preserve special cultural and environmental features.
Rural communities are areas with relatively low development densities, typically less than 1 resident per acre. Many TDM strategies are suitable for implementation in such areas. Rural community TDM can help achieve the following objectives:
· Increase Transportation Options.
· Provide Basic Access.
· Improve Transportation Affordability.
· Increase opportunities for enjoyable and Healthy exercise.
· Address traffic congestion and parking problems associated with Tourist and Special Event transportation.
· Create attractive Bus and Rail Stations where residents can wait in comfort and security.
· Improve Community Livability.
· Help preserve special community and environmental features (Context Sensitive Design).
· Improve transportation Safety.
Many rural areas have significant levels of poverty, and non-drivers often experience significant isolation. As a result, strategies that improve affordable transportation options for non-drivers can provide significant benefits.
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Geographic areas are often categories in the following ways: · Urban – relatively high density (10+ residents and 5+ housing units per acre), mixed-use development, multi-modal transportation system. · Suburban – medium density (2-10 residents, 1-5 housing units per acre), segregated land use (e.g., residential in one area, commercial in another, industrial in another), Automobile Dependent transportation system. · Town – Smaller urban centers (generally less than 20,000 residents). · Village – Small urban center (generally less than 1,000 residents). · Exurban – low density (less than 2 residents or 1 housing unit per acre), mostly farms and undeveloped lands, located near enough to an urban area that residents often commute, shop and use services there. · Rural – low density (less than 2 residents or 1 housing unit per acre), mostly farms and undeveloped lands, with a relatively independent identify and economy (i.e., residents do not usually commute, shop and use services in an urban area). |
Because of their lower densities, rural areas tend to be Automobile Dependent. Most trips made by personal automobile and there is often relatively little demand for alternative modes, such as ridesharing, transit and cycling. Most alternative modes experience economies of scale: increased demand can lead to improved services. TDM strategies that give automobile owners an incentive to use alternative modes for some of their trips can result in a positive cycle of improved service and further increases in demand for alternatives.
For example, there may be dozens of residents who commute on the same highway in their single occupant vehicle. Under current circumstances there may be little incentive to share rides, so non-drivers have poor travel options. A TDM strategy that gives these commuters an incentive to rideshare (HOV Priority, Road Pricing, Commuter Financial Incentives, etc.) can lead motorists to form carpools, vanpools, or justify transit service.
Land use Accessibility refers to the distance that people must travel to reach obtain goods, services and participate in activities. In recent years many rural communities have lost public services, such as schools, stores, medical centers, banks, garages and taverns, causing rural residents to travel further, and significantly reducing accessibility for non-drivers. Rural service reductions are often justified on efficiency grounds, but the cost effectiveness analysis often overlooks increased travel costs. For example, it may seem cost effective to consolidate several small schools into one larger school when only direct facility costs are considered, but not when the additional transportation costs to students and their families are considered.
Rural TDM can therefore include Smart Growth land use management to improve Accessibility by Clustering development into settlements, rather than dispersed throughout a rural area (Twaddell and Emerine, 2007). For example, public schools, shops, medical clinics and other public services can be located close together in villages, which also contain housing suitable for people who are transportation disadvantaged (Location Efficient Development). This can increase transportation and housing affordability.
The following TDM strategies can help improve transportation options in order to help provide Basic Mobility and Transportation Affordability, and to improve opportunities for physical exercise.
Many rural communities do not accommodate nonmotorized travel well, due to inadequate facilities and increasing motor vehicle traffic volumes and speeds. A variety of Pedestrian and Cycling improvements can be implemented in rural communities. This improves transportation options, and allows residents and visitors to enjoy healthy physical exercise.
Many highway agencies and local governments now specify that all highways and arterials without curbs have a smooth shoulder of 1-3 metres wherever possible, in part to more safely accommodate cyclists (ODOT, 1995). Shoulder pavements also make roads more convenient and safer for motorists, increase highway capacity, facilitate maintenance, snow removal, and help extend roadway life by reducing edge deterioration (Ronkin). Gravel roads and driveways connecting to a highway should be paved at least 4.5 metres (15 feet) back to minimize loose gravel from spilling onto the shoulder.
Table 1 Highway Bikeway Width By Traffic Volume (Metres) (ODOT, 1995)
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ADT < 250 |
ADT 250-400 |
ADT 400-DHV 100 |
DHV 100-200 |
DHV 200-400 |
DHV >400 |
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Rural Arterials |
1.2 |
1.2 |
1.8 |
1.8 |
2.4 |
2.4 |
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Rural Collectors |
0.6 |
0.6 |
1.2 |
1.8 |
2.4 |
2.4 |
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Rural Local Routes |
0.6 |
0.6 |
1.2 |
1.8 |
1.8 |
2.4 |
ADT = Average Daily Traffic DHV = Design Hour Volume (0.6 = 2 ft; 1.2 = 4 ft.; 1.8 = 6 ft; 2.4 = 8 ft.)
Table 1 summarizes recommended shoulder bikelane widths. Extra width is required on steep grades and where there is a curb. A bikeway of 1.5-1.8 meter width is needed under such conditions. On shoulder widening projects there may be opportunities to save money by reducing the thickness of aggregate (50-75 mm) and asphalt (100 mm) if:
· There are no planned roadway widening projects for the road section in the foreseeable future.
· The existing road shoulder area and roadbed are stable and there is adequate drainage.
· Existing travel lanes have adequate width and are in stable condition.
· The horizontal curvature is not excessive, so wheels of large trucks do not track onto the shoulder.
· The existing and projected vehicle traffic volumes and truck traffic are not excessive.
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Design Tip If rumble strips (raised or grooved markings at the edge of the road to alert motorists running off the roadway) are installed along highways, it is important to provide adequate smooth, paved shoulder beyond the rumble strips to accommodate cyclists. A good design is to have 400 mm grooves cut into the shoulder 150 mm to the right of the fog line (the white line at the edge of the road), leaving at least 1.8 m of smooth shoulder for cyclists. |
Informal ridesharing is common in rural communities, and is a particularly important option for non-drivers and lower-income residents. Ridesharing programs can match carpools and organize vanpools. Vanpooling can be particularly effective in rural communities.
This can help improve transportation options for students and parents. It can provide a variety of services, including transit, ridesharing and nonmotorized transportation improvements.
Telecommunications can often substitute for physical travel, which is particularly helpful in rural communities. Rural communities can encourage employers to accommodate telecommuting, provide public services by Internet, and help residents obtain Internet connections and skills.
Taxi service is an important transportation option in many situations. Establishing formal taxi service can improve transportation options in many rural communities.
Rural communities can benefit from improved public transit service, including interregional bus and rail service, and local demand-response Shuttle Services. A basic level of transit service is defied as at least four round-trip stops a day, with weekend service, which allows residents to use transit for travel to an urban center and return in one day (Stead, 2002). Incentives for discretionary users (people who have the option of driving) to use rural transit services when possible (such as Market Reforms and HOV Priority) will increase demand, leading to further service improvements.
Universal Design refers to facility designs that accommodate the widest range of potential users, including people with mobility and visual impairments.
This strategy is particularly suitable in rural areas, since many destinations are too far to easily walk to from a bus stop.
The following strategies can help address occasional traffic congestion and parking problems.
Many rural communities experience seasonal
This encourages the use of alternative travel modes to occasional events that draw large crowds, such as festivals, games and fairs, or when construction projects or disasters create temporary transportation problems.
Transportation Management Associations (TMAs) are private, non-profit, member-controlled organizations that provide transportation services in a particular area, such as a commercial center. TMAs can help provide a variety of transportation services, and are particularly important for coordinating transportation during special events or busy seasons.
This strategy can include efforts to prioritize travel in order to insure Basic Access, particularly for emergencies.
The following strategies can help improve community livability and help protect special cultural and environmental features in rural communities.
Context Sensitive Design (CSD) refers to roadway standards and development practices that are flexible and sensitive to community values. CSD can allow roads to preserve special features and accommodate special needs.
Speed management can help create safer roads that are more suitable for nonmotorized transportation.
Vehicles can be restricted to reduce traffic on certain roads or a certain times. For example, certain roads may be restricted to local access trips only, and heavy truck traffic may be restricted on highways that pass through villages.
This strategy can control vehicle traffic and create more Accessible land use patterns.
These strategies can encourage motorists to use alternative modes for some trips, leading to improved service.
Employee CTR programs can help give individual commuters more incentive to use alternative modes such as Ridesharing, Transit and Telework. Since these modes tend to experience economies of scale, increased demand tends to improve overall Transportation Options.
Some rural highways and ferry crossings are suitable for giving carpools, vanpools and transit vehicles priority.
Some rural highways are suitable for road tolls. Distance-based vehicle fees (such as weight-distance fees and Pay-As-You-Drive vehicle insurance) can encourage vehicle travel reductions on all roadways.
Developing Region TDM provides additional information on rural transportation improvement strategies. Smart Growth, Land Use Evaluation and Community Livability describe various strategies that can help achieve rural community development objectives.
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I hear they plan to install a clock on the Leaning Tower of Pisa because someone asked, “What good is the inclination if you don't have the time?” |
Regulations enabling the issue of draft maps of open country and registered common land were laid in Parliament today keeping the Government on track to meet its target of opening up access to the countryside by 2005.
Part 1 of the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 provides for a statutory right of access to open country and registered common land. The laying of the new regulations 'The Access to the Countryside (Maps in Draft Form) (England) Regulations 2001' today will allow the Countryside Agency to issue and consult on draft maps. The regulations will ensure that, when they are issued, draft maps will be widely available for inspection, including at many local libraries, local council offices, and on the internet.
The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs consulted on the proposed regulations earlier this year and the report summarising the responses to the consultation is also published today and can be viewed on the internet at www.defra.gov.uk/wildlife-countryside/cl/index.htm.
Many communities have main streets (streets that are major commercial centers) that also serve as a major arterials or highway. This requires streetscape planning and management that balances the needs of local users (pedestrians, shoppers, employees, business owners, and residents) with the needs of through traffic (both auto and freight) to move safely and efficiently over longer distances.
The State of Oregon produced a handbook titled Main Street…When a Highway Runs Through It, which offers guidance for communities to address these issues. It describes the many tools available to identify the problems and develop effective solutions for main streets that also serve as highways. As a complement to the Oregon Highway Design Manual, this handbook seeks to bring peaceful coexistence to the dual personas of downtown and highway. It proposes ways to design our main streets that make use of our natural inclination to drive as quickly or slowly as the roadway itself suggests. Its goal is to make main street a place that is attractive and that works from many points of view: pedestrian safety and activity, smooth traffic flow,economic vigor, and high quality of life.
The Community Transportation Action Program (CTAP) was launched in August 1996 as a joint venture of five Ontario ministries: Transportation, Education and Training, Citizenship, Culture and Recreation, Community and Social Services, and Health.
CTAP's mandate was to provide transitional support to communities interested in restructuring and coordinating their local transportation services. CTAP supported the development of innovative, local transportation services.
In the past, exclusive relationships existed between users and providers of transportation. For example, school boards would typically contract school bus operators to provide transportation; municipalities would provide or contract public transit services; social service agencies would use volunteers and/or agency vans; and health facilities would primarily use ambulances. Improved coordination of transportation resources can result in less duplication, less inefficiency and fewer gaps in service. It also breaks down barriers between client groups, thus providing a wider range of vehicles to meet users' needs in a more flexible and cost-effective manner.
For example, in some communities, rather than sitting idle, school buses are being used between morning and afternoon student runs to transport seniors and persons with disabilities. In a remote northern Ontario community, the Board of Education has contracted with the local Meals on Wheels to transport disabled students to school in its van. This provides an economical solution for the school board and helps to offset the cost of the van for Meals on Wheels.
The Sedona/Red Rock region in northern Arizona is a popular destination for tourists who are attracted by its spectacular Red Rock cliffs, expanses of forest and grasslands, rushing rivers and striking canyons. The area has approximately 14,000 residents and 4-5 million annual visitors driving 2.5 million cars through Oak Creek Canyon each year, with a doubling of visitors projected in the next two decades. Currently, the only viable way for most people to get to or around Sedona is by car.
The City of Sedona, Yavapai and Coconino Counties, the Coconino National Forest, the Northern Arizona Council of Governments (NACOG) and the Arizona Department of Transportation (ADOT), with technical assistance from the Community Transportation Association of America, are exploring innovative and cost effective ways to manage transportation to enhance the region’s livability and preserve its cultural and environmental assets. These efforts will control automobile access to scenic sights and areas within the Coconino National Forest, promoting a balanced choice of transportation options for residents and visitors, including limited highway and parking facilities, establishing a convenient public shuttle system, and pedestrian improvements.
The transportation plan is designed to increase travel choices and enhance visitors’ experience. Most in town restaurants and businesses will be accessible by shuttle. Hotels and resorts would serve as staging areas for trips to scenic sights or up the Canyon. A network of gateway centers coupled with a downtown transit hub will serve as collection points for people heading for recreation spots, state parks, trailheads, shopping excursions and other outings. Visitors who arrive by air or shuttle bus would be able to get around without the need of rental cars. Many visitors to Red Rock country pass through Sedona on chartered tours. While these "package" visitors currently depend upon tour operators or jeep companies to get around locally, the availability of a low-cost public shuttle, with proper marketing and promotion, is expected to entice many independent travelers to remain a day or two in the area. The scenic shuttle system will provide the transportation link between many major visitor destinations in the area. The following actions are being planned or implemented to support this plan:
· Public Shuttle System: The City will take the lead role in jointly developing a community shuttle system—the centerpiece of the strategy for increasing mobility and access to the region’s most important attractions while reducing reliance on the automobile. The shuttle system will be designed to provide frequent, convenient and accessible service within Sedona, between the Village of Oak Creek and the Uptown area, including key attractions within the Red Rock area, and throughout Oak Creek Canyon.
· Shuttle Stops: In-town shuttle stops will be designated adjacent to core commercial areas, major motels and resorts, municipal offices, medical offices and parks. Passenger shelters, benches and other "street furniture" would be constructed, adding to the transit system’s convenience and attractiveness to both passengers and non-passengers.
· Street Configuration: The City will enhance auto, bicycle and pedestrian access to the shuttle system. The street system needs to be interconnected and provide alternate routes between core business areas and surrounding neighborhoods without requiring use of major highways.
· Bicycle/Pedestrian Connections: Travel by foot or bicycle will need to be facilitated for shuttle passengers at either end of their trip. A key element of a successful transit system will be a convenient network of sidewalks, jogging paths and bike pathways serving shuttle stops.
· Transit-Oriented Development: Transit-oriented development and transit-friendly land use would be promoted through a mix of housing densities and higher intensity development in locations easily served by transit.
· Parking: City officials will need to manage parking to reduce congestion and promote transit ridership, including limiting right-of-way parking, create a central parking district, and encourage visitors’ to leave their cars at park-and-ride lots and resorts. Forest officials are prepared to limit parking in a number of scenic areas within the national forest. Limits would be placed on roadside parking along two highways that run through Oak Creek Canyon and the Red Rocks scenic area. These limits will serve as an incentive for the shuttle system and will help address safety, water quality and other resource issues. A coordinated plan for shuttle and controlled parking will be developed to ensure sufficient access to trailheads, residences, businesses, and developed recreation areas, with the intent of providing strong incentives for forest visitors to leave their private vehicles behind and use a shuttle service.
· Permit System: The Forest Service is considering implementing a “parking pass” or “passport” for drivers accessing the public lands. Studies indicate that this system could provide significant revenue to support the infrastructure of a shuttle system. At the same time, these methods can be used to encourage visitors to use a shuttle system rather than paying for parking. Subsidized seasonal or annual passes would be available for Sedona area residents.
· Enhancements: Shuttle stops will be designated at one mile or less intervals within the Canyon and at vista points elsewhere. Appropriate vehicle turnouts, parking and loading areas, passenger shelters and information kiosks at each stop will also have to be constructed.
· Pathways: It is also contemplated that shuttle stops would be connected by pathways, allowing people the convenience of taking the shuttle, bicycling or walking to various destinations along the way within the recreation areas.
· Gateways: The partnership between jurisdictions will also allow the development of a network of “gateway” centers and “orientation” sites to serve visitors entering the area. At least four gateways are contemplated. Each would serve as possible "orientation sites", and serve as visitor information centers, day and long-term parking facilities, and transfer points to access the shuttle.
The Northern Echo, May 16, 2002
A British initiative will bring new public transport schemes to rural areas of County Durham. The County Durham Response Project secured the funding through a Durham County Council bid to the Government’s Rural Bus Challenge programme.
Now the council is busy developing the different elements of the scheme, which will improve transport services in North-West Durham and Teesdale. Proposals include a new bus service between Teesdale and Darlington and a second service in Upper Teesdale, which would run at peak times and would also be available for community use.
There would also be a county-wide travel response centre, where journeys could be booked and operators could co-ordinate their services. Councillor Bob Pendlebury, Durham County Council cabinet member for the environment, said: “This money will enable the council to work with various partners to develop flexible demand responsive services which will operate in conjunction with existing services. This means we will be able to meet the needs of a wider cross section of rural communities.”
“The travel demands of a modern society are varied and often complicated. Groups who will particularly benefit are young people, the elderly, parents with young children, people with disabilities and people who work shifts.”
The council has also been awarded money from the Countryside Agency to carry out a feasibility study for a rural car club in North West Durham.
Manalapan Township in New Jersey uses smart growth principles in various rural conditions, including an undeveloped rural corridor that is rapidly facing development, a congested commuter route lined by commercial development serving as a significant transit node, and a community center that is currently undeveloped that could link several significant community resources and facilities including a train station. Paramount to each of the focus areas is the need to provide a network system to manage the burden otherwise imposed on the state highway system (Duguid, 2006).
Key smart growth principles include:
The narrow, curvy and sometimes congested roads that wind through rural northern Baltimore County should be kept the way they are, according to a study to be released today by a Towson-based land preservation group.
Though creating wider, straighter roads might seem a logical response to increasing traffic volume, the transportation consultants hired by the Valleys Planning Council concluded that bigger roads only bring more cars traveling faster. The Valleys Planning Council plans to lobby county officials to adopt the recommendations as formal rural roads design standards. “We want the road standards to match the land-use standards,” said Teresa Moore, executive director of the land preservation group, which commissioned the $50,000 study.
Baltimore County limits development in the rural parts of the county through zoning classifications, with programs to buy property owners' development rights and by its decision not to extend public water and sewer lines to outlying areas, Moore said.
But when it comes time to repair a bridge or improve a road, she said, the county uses traditional highway design standards that often are not in sync with the county's land-use policies. “Because road and bridge construction projects are expensive and traffic is expected to increase, even in areas where future development has been restricted, the natural tendency of transportation planners is to maximize capacity for future, increased volumes,” according to the study conducted by Transportation Resource Group Inc., a York, Pa.-based company, and Bridgescape, a Columbia-based firm. “This becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy - the familiar 'build it and they will come' scenario.”
By keeping the roads and bridges narrow, the country feel of the area will be preserved, the consultants and Valleys Planning Council officials said. “We don't need the straightest, fastest roads,” said Jon Seitz, a partner at Transportation Resource Group. “We want roads that meander through the countryside. There's a natural instinct for drivers to slow down on those roads,” said Seitz, adding that less pavement also has advantages for storm water management.
But Bill Korpman, deputy director of the county's Department of Public Works, said the county rarely widens or straightens roads. “We're not going around widening or straightening roads just on principle, only if there's a safety issue,” said Korpman, adding that even when there is a safety concern, engineers first would look at whether the problem could be addressed by installing a guard rail or making another improvement to the road. The Valleys Planning Council study also recommends:
· Property owners should not be required to give the county such wide rights of way when they preserve land in conservation easements.
· The community should have input about roadway improvement projects that will change the dimensions or geometry of an existing road.
· When widening the shoulders along roads, the county should use grass when possible, rather than pavement.
· County officials should make sure that paving contractors do not widen roads by adding a few inches each time they resurface the road.
Baltimore County Councilman T. Bryan McIntire, a North County Republican, said he strongly supports the viewpoint expressed in the council study. “Part of the charm of Baltimore County, especially the more rural parts, is its country atmosphere,” McIntire said.
Trudel (1999) describes how shared and subsidized taxi services provide affordable mobility in rural areas. Freund (2000) describes a demand-response service that provides mobility for elderly residents.
Several federal and state programs provide special Shuttle Services between lower-income neighborhoods and employment centers. The U.S. federal government offers grants to help establish and support such services.
Laura Barnhardt (2005), Consultants advise letting rural roads meander: Study finds straight streets would bring more cars to Baltimore County, Baltimore Sun (www.baltimoresun.com), November 21, 2005
Jon Burkhardt, James Hedrick and Adam McGavock (1998), Assessment of the Economic Impacts of Rural Public Transportation, Transit Cooperative Research Program Report 34, Transportation Research Board (www.tcrponline.org); at http://gulliver.trb.org/publications/tcrp/tcrp_rpt_34.pdf.
CIT (2001), Rural Transport, Commission on Integrated Transport (www.cfit.gov.uk/reports/rural/seminar/index.htm).
DEA & Associates (1999), Main Street…When a Highway Runs Through It, Transportation and Growth Management Program, Oregon DOT and Dept. of Environmental Quality (http://egov.oregon.gov/LCD/TGM/publications.shtml).
DETR (2001), Our Countryside: The Future – A Fair Deal For Rural England, Department of Environment, Transport and Region (www.defra.gov.uk/wildlife-countryside/ruralwp).
Lori J. Duguid (2006), Implementing Smart Growth Principles in Manalapan Township, New Jersey, to Address Transportation Deficiencies, ITE Annual Meeting (www.ite.org).
Dye Management (2001), Planning for Transportation in Rural Areas, FHWA, USDOT (www.fhwa.dot.gov); at www.fhwa.dot.gov/planning/rural/planningfortrans/index.html.
P. Elsenaar and S. Abouraad (2005), Road Safety Best Practices - Examples and Recommendations, Global Road Safety Partnership (www.grsproadsafety.org); at www.grsproadsafety.org/themes/default/pdfs/Road%20Safety%20Best%20Practices.pdf. This manual describes specific measures for reducing roadway risk, particularly in developing counties. It covers: Campaign and Enforcement, Awareness and Partnership, Crash Databases, Treatment of Black Spots, Road Design and Speed Management, Heath and Road Safety, and Prehospital Care.
FHWA (2002), Rural Transportation Planning, Federal Highway Administration (www.fhwa.dot.gov/planning/rural/index.html).
FHWA (2002), Planning for Transportation in Rural Areas, Federal Highway Administration, (wwwcf.fhwa.dot.gov/planning/rural/planningfortrans/index.html).
Katherine Freund (2000), “Independent Transportation Network; Alternative Transportation for the Elderly,” TR News, 206, Jan/Feb. 2000, pp. 3-12.
P. Gaffron, J. P. Hine and F. Mitchell (2001), The Role Of Transport On Social Exclusion In Urban Scotland: Literature Review, Scottish Executive Central Research Unit (www.scotland.gov.uk/cru/kd01/blue/rtseuclrev.pdf).
International Forum for Rural Transport and Development (IFRTD) (www.gn.apc.org/ifrtd) is a global network of organizations and individuals working to improve accessibility and mobility in rural communities.
KFH Group (1999), Transit Manager Tool Kit for Rural and Small Urban Transportation Systems, Transit Cooperative Research Program Report 54, Transportation Research Board (www.tcrponline.org).
Todd Litman (1999), First Resort; Resort Community Transportation Management, VTPI (www.vtpi.org); at www.vtpi.org/resort.pdf.
NWF (2001), Smart Growth and Wildlife, National Wildlife Federation (www.nwf.org).
ODOT (1995), Oregon DOT Highway Design Manual, ODOT (www.odot.state.or.us/techserv/bikewalk).
PATH (Planning for Active Transportation and Health) (www.nrsrcaa.org/path/Documents.htm), describes practical measures to increase transportation efficiency, equity and health in rural regions, sponsored by the Natural Resources Services of the Redwood Community Action Agency.
PATH (2006), The PATH Guide: Planning Ideas, Tools And Examples To Achieve Transportation Access And Equity In Rural California, Prepared by Natural Resources Services, A Division of Redwood Community Action Agency, Eureka, California, (www.nrsrcaa.org/path), with funding from The Caltrans Environmental Justice Program; at www.nrsrcaa.org/path/pdfs/PATHGuide5_06.pdf.
PSRC (2004), Rural Town Centers & Corridors Project, Puget Sound Regional Council (www.psrc.org/projects/rural/reports.htm). This project looked at how to identify and integrate rural highway corridor development needs with local town center development needs.
Michael Ronkin, Twenty-Two Reasons for Paved Highway Shoulders, Oregon DOT Bicycle and Pedestrian Program (www.oregon.gov/ODOT/HWY/BIKEPED); at www.bicyclinglife.com/EffectiveAdvocacy/22reasons.htm.
Rural Transportation.org (www.ruraltransportation.org), sponsored by the National Association of Counties (NACo) and the National Association of Development Organizations (NADO), serves as an information clearinghouse for regional development professionals, local government officials and others interested in rural transportation planning and development issues.
Rural Transport Knowledge Base (www.transport-links.org/rtkb/English\Intro.htm) is a set of reference and training material of the latest thinking and practice in the field of rural transport.
Rural Transportation Planning Website (wwwcf.fhwa.dot.gov/planning/rural) by the US Federal Highway Administration provides a variety of resources and links.
SAIA (2001), Rural ITS Toolbox, Rural Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) Program, USDOT (www.itsdocs.fhwa.dot.gov/jpodocs/repts_te/13477.html).
Niklas Sieber (1977), An Annotated Bibliography on Rural Transport, (IFRTD) (www.gn.apc.org/ifrtd).
Paul Starkey (2003), Local Transport Solutions for Rural Development, Rural Travel & Transportation Program, Department for International Development (www.dfid.gov.uk).
Dominic Stead (2002), “Why Rural Areas in Britain Will Not Benefit From Lower Transport Fuel Duty,” World Transport Policy & Practice, Vol. 8, No. 1 (http://ecoplan.org/wtpp/wt_index.htm), Jan. 2002, pp. 42-47.
Transport and Rural Infrastructure Learning and Sharing Partnership (TRISP) (www.transport-links.org/trsp-kda), sponsored by the World Bank and UK Department for International Development, seeks to improve access to relevant knowledge for stakeholders in the transport and rural infrastructure sector in developing countries.
TransWeb (www.trans-web.ch) by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) is a gateway to knowledge about Mobility & Access in the developing world, particularly in rural areas.
TRB (2003), TR News: Rural Passenger Transportation, Number 225, Transportation Research Board (www.trb.org), March-April 2003.
Michel Trudel (1999), “The Taxi as a Transit Mode,” Transportation Quarterly, Vol. 53, No. 4, Fall 1999, pp. 121-130.
TRL (2004), Rural Transport Policy Toolkit, Transportation Research Laboratory (www.trl.co.uk); at www.transport-links.org/rtpt/English%5CIntro_Final.htm.
Hannah Twaddell and Dan Emerine (2007), Best Practices to Enhance the Transportation-Land Use Connection in the Rural United States, NCHRP 582, Transportation Research Board (www.trb.org); at http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_rpt_582.pdf.
This Encyclopedia is produced by the Victoria Transport Policy Institute to help improve understanding of Transportation Demand Management. It is an ongoing project. Please send us your comments and suggestions for improvement.
Victoria Transport Policy Institute
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