Rural Transportation Management
Improving Transportation Efficiency and Diversity in Rural Areas
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TDM
Encyclopedia
Victoria Transport Policy Institute
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Updated
May 18, 2007
This chapter describes transportation management strategies suitable for implementation in lower-density rural and suburban areas. These can help achieve a variety of objectives, including improved transportation options, increased transportation affordability, reduced congestion and parking problems associated with tourism and special events, and flexibility to help preserve special cultural and environmental features.
Rural communities are areas with relatively low development densities, typically less than 1 resident per acre. Many TDM strategies are suitable for implementation in such areas. Rural community TDM can help achieve the following objectives:
· Increase Transportation Options.
· Provide Basic Access.
· Improve Transportation Affordability.
· Increase opportunities for enjoyable and Healthy exercise.
· Address traffic congestion and parking problems associated with Tourist and Special Event transportation.
· Improve Community Livability.
· Help preserve special community and environmental features (Context Sensitive Design).
· Improve transportation Safety.
Many rural areas have significant levels of poverty, and non-drivers often experience significant isolation. As a result, strategies that improve affordable transportation options for non-drivers can provide significant benefits.
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Geographic
areas are often categories in the following ways: · Urban – relatively high density (10+ residents and 5+ housing units per acre), mixed-use development, multi-modal transportation system. · Suburban – medium density (2-10 residents, 1-5 housing units per acre), segregated land use (e.g., residential in one area, commercial in another, industrial in another), Automobile Dependent transportation system. · Town – Smaller urban centers (generally less than 20,000 residents). · Village – Small urban center (generally less than 1,000 residents). · Exurban – low density (less than 2 residents or 1 housing unit per acre), mostly farms and undeveloped lands, located near enough to an urban area that residents often commute, shop and use services there. · Rural – low density (less than 2 residents or 1 housing unit per acre), mostly farms and undeveloped lands, with a relatively independent identify and economy (i.e., residents do not usually commute, shop and use services in an urban area). |
Because of their lower densities, rural areas tend to be Automobile Dependent. Most trips made by personal automobile and there is often relatively little demand for alternative modes, such as ridesharing, transit and cycling. Most alternative modes experience economies of scale: increased demand can lead to improved services. TDM strategies that give automobile owners an incentive to use alternative modes for some of their trips can result in a positive cycle of improved service and further increases in demand for alternatives.
For example, there may be dozens of residents who commute on the same highway in their single occupant vehicle. Under current circumstances there may be little incentive to share rides, so non-drivers have poor travel options. A TDM strategy that gives these commuters an incentive to rideshare (HOV Priority, Road Pricing, Commuter Financial Incentives, etc.) can lead motorists to form carpools, vanpools, or justify transit service.
Land use Accessibility refers to the distance that people must travel to reach obtain goods, services and participate in activities. In recent years many rural communities have lost public services, such as schools, stores, medical centers, banks, garages and taverns, causing rural residents to travel further, and significantly reducing accessibility for non-drivers. Rural service reductions are often justified on efficiency grounds, but the cost effectiveness analysis often overlooks increased travel costs. For example, it may seem cost effective to consolidate several small schools into one larger school when only direct facility costs are considered, but not when the additional transportation costs to students and their families are considered.
Rural TDM can therefore include Smart Growth land use management to improve Accessibility by Clustering development into settlements, rather than dispersed throughout a rural are. For example, public schools, shops, medical clinics and other public services can be located close together in villages, which also contain housing suitable for people who are transportation disadvantaged (Location Efficient Development). This can increase transportation and housing affordability.
The following TDM strategies can help improve transportation options in order to help provide Basic Mobility and Transportation Affordability, and to improve opportunities for physical exercise.
Many rural communities do not accommodate nonmotorized travel well, due to inadequate facilities and increasing motor vehicle traffic volumes and speeds. A variety of Pedestrian and Cycling improvements can be implemented in rural communities. This improves transportation options, and allows residents and visitors to enjoy healthy physical exercise.
Many highway agencies and local governments now specify that all highways and arterials without curbs have a smooth shoulder of 1-3 metres wherever possible, in part to more safely accommodate cyclists (ODOT, 1995). Shoulder pavements also make roads more convenient and safer for motorists, increase highway capacity, facilitate maintenance, snow removal, and help extend roadway life by reducing edge deterioration (Ronkin). Gravel roads and driveways connecting to a highway should be paved at least 4.5 metres (15 feet) back to minimize loose gravel from spilling onto the shoulder.
Table 1 Highway Bikeway Width By Traffic Volume (Metres) (ODOT, 1995)
|
|
ADT <
250 |
ADT
250-400 |
ADT
400-DHV 100 |
DHV
100-200 |
DHV
200-400 |
DHV
>400 |
|
Rural Arterials |
1.2 |
1.2 |
1.8 |
1.8 |
2.4 |
2.4 |
|
Rural Collectors |
0.6 |
0.6 |
1.2 |
1.8 |
2.4 |
2.4 |
|
Rural Local Routes |
0.6 |
0.6 |
1.2 |
1.8 |
1.8 |
2.4 |
ADT = Average Daily Traffic DHV
= Design Hour Volume (0.6 = 2 ft; 1.2 = 4 ft.; 1.8 = 6 ft; 2.4 = 8 ft.)
Table 1 summarizes recommended shoulder bikelane widths. Extra width is required on steep grades and where there is a curb. A bikeway of 1.5-1.8 meter width is needed under such conditions. On shoulder widening projects there may be opportunities to save money by reducing the thickness of aggregate (50-75 mm) and asphalt (100 mm) if:
· There are no planned roadway widening projects for the road section in the foreseeable future.
· The existing road shoulder area and roadbed are stable and there is adequate drainage.
· Existing travel lanes have adequate width and are in stable condition.
· The horizontal curvature is not excessive, so wheels of large trucks do not track onto the shoulder.
· The existing and projected vehicle traffic volumes and truck traffic are not excessive.
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Design
Tip If
rumble strips (raised or grooved markings at the edge of the road to alert
motorists running off the roadway) are installed along highways, it is important
to provide adequate smooth, paved shoulder beyond the rumble strips to
accommodate cyclists. A good design is to have 400 mm grooves cut into the
shoulder 150 mm to the right of the fog line (the white line at the edge of
the road), leaving at least 1.8 m of smooth shoulder for cyclists. |
Informal ridesharing is common in rural communities, and is a particularly important option for non-drivers and lower-income residents. Ridesharing programs can match carpools and organize vanpools. Vanpooling can be particularly effective in rural communities.
This can help improve transportation options for students and parents. It can provide a variety of services, including transit, ridesharing and nonmotorized transportation improvements.
Telecommunications can often substitute for physical travel, which is particularly helpful in rural communities. Rural communities can encourage employers to accommodate telecommuting, provide public services by Internet, and help residents obtain Internet connections and skills.
Taxi service is an important transportation option in many situations. Establishing formal taxi service can improve transportation options in many rural communities.
Rural communities can benefit from improved public transit service, including interregional bus and rail service, and local demand-response Shuttle Services. A basic level of transit service is defied as at least four round-trip stops a day, with weekend service, which allows residents to use transit for travel to an urban center and return in one day (Stead, 2002). Incentives for discretionary users (people who have the option of driving) to use rural transit services when possible (such as Market Reforms and HOV Priority) will increase demand, leading to further service improvements.
Universal Design refers to facility designs that accommodate the widest range of potential users, including people with mobility and visual impairments.
This strategy is particularly suitable in rural areas, since many destinations are too far to easily walk to from a bus stop.
The following strategies can help address occasional traffic congestion and parking problems.
Many rural communities experience seasonal
This encourages the use of alternative travel modes to occasional events that draw large crowds, such as festivals, games and fairs, or when construction projects or disasters create temporary transportation problems.
Transportation Management Associations (TMAs) are private, non-profit, member-controlled organizations that provide transportation services in a particular area, such as a commercial center. TMAs can help provide a variety of transportation services, and are particularly important for coordinating transportation during special events or busy seasons.
This strategy can include efforts to prioritize travel in order to insure Basic Access, particularly for emergencies.
The following strategies can help improve community livability and help protect special cultural and environmental features in rural communities.
Context Sensitive Design (CSD) refers to roadway standards and development practices that are flexible and sensitive to community values. CSD can allow roads to preserve special features and accommodate special needs.
Speed management can help create safer roads that are more suitable for nonmotorized transportation.
Vehicles can be restricted to reduce traffic on certain roads or a certain times. For example, certain roads may be restricted to local access trips only, and heavy truck traffic may be restricted on highways that pass through villages.
This strategy can control vehicle traffic and create more Accessible land use patterns.
These strategies can encourage motorists to use alternative modes for some trips, leading to improved service.
Employee CTR programs can help give individual commuters more incentive to use alternative modes such as Ridesharing, Transit and Telework. Since these modes tend to experience economies of scale, increased demand tends to improve overall Transportation Options.
Some rural highways and ferry crossings are suitable for giving carpools, vanpools and transit vehicles priority.
Some rural highways are suitable for road tolls. Distance-based vehicle fees (such as weight-distance fees and Pay-As-You-Drive vehicle insurance) can encourage vehicle travel reductions on all roadways.
Developing Region TDM provides additional information on rural transportation improvement strategies. Smart Growth, Land Use Evaluation and Community Livability describe various strategies that can help achieve rural community development objectives.
|
I
hear they plan to install a clock on the Leaning Tower of Pisa because
someone asked, “What good is the inclination if you don't have the time?” |
Regulations
enabling the issue of draft maps of open country and registered common land
were laid in Parliament today keeping the Government on track to meet its
target of opening up access to the countryside by 2005.
Part
1 of the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 provides for a statutory right
of access to open country and registered common land. The laying of the new
regulations 'The Access to the Countryside (Maps in Draft Form) (
The
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs consulted on the proposed
regulations earlier this year and the report summarising the responses to the
consultation is also published today and can be viewed on the internet at
www.defra.gov.uk/wildlife-countryside/cl/index.htm.
Many communities have main streets (streets that are major commercial centers) that also serve as a major arterials or highway. This requires streetscape planning and management that balances the needs of local users (pedestrians, shoppers, employees, business owners, and residents) with the needs of through traffic (both auto and freight) to move safely and efficiently over longer distances.
The
State of
The
Community Transportation Action Program (CTAP) was launched in August 1996 as a
joint venture of five
CTAP's
mandate was to provide transitional support to communities interested in
restructuring and coordinating their local transportation services. CTAP
supported the development of innovative, local transportation services.
In
the past, exclusive relationships existed between users and providers of
transportation. For example, school boards would typically contract school bus
operators to provide transportation; municipalities would provide or contract
public transit services; social service agencies would use volunteers and/or
agency vans; and health facilities would primarily use ambulances. Improved
coordination of transportation resources can result in less duplication, less
inefficiency and fewer gaps in service. It also breaks down barriers between
client groups, thus providing a wider range of vehicles to meet users' needs in
a more flexible and cost-effective manner.
For
example, in some communities, rather than sitting idle, school buses are being
used between morning and afternoon student runs to transport seniors and
persons with disabilities. In a remote northern
The Sedona/Red Rock region in
northern
The City of
The transportation plan is
designed to increase travel choices and enhance visitors’ experience. Most in
town restaurants and businesses will be accessible by shuttle. Hotels and
resorts would serve as staging areas for trips to scenic sights or up the
Canyon. A network of gateway centers coupled with a downtown transit hub will
serve as collection points for people heading for recreation spots, state
parks, trailheads, shopping excursions and other outings. Visitors who arrive
by air or shuttle bus would be able to get around without the need of rental
cars. Many visitors to Red Rock country pass through Sedona on chartered tours.
While these "package" visitors currently depend upon tour operators
or jeep companies to get around locally, the availability of a low-cost public
shuttle, with proper marketing and promotion, is expected to entice many
independent travelers to remain a day or two in the area. The scenic shuttle
system will provide the transportation link between many major visitor
destinations in the area. The following actions are being planned or
implemented to support this plan:
· Public Shuttle System: The City
will take the lead role in jointly developing a community shuttle system—the
centerpiece of the strategy for increasing mobility and access to the region’s
most important attractions while reducing reliance on the automobile. The
shuttle system will be designed to provide frequent, convenient and accessible
service within Sedona, between the
· Shuttle Stops: In-town shuttle stops will be designated adjacent to
core commercial areas, major motels and resorts, municipal offices, medical
offices and parks. Passenger shelters, benches and other "street
furniture" would be constructed, adding to the transit system’s
convenience and attractiveness to both passengers and non-passengers.
· Street Configuration: The City will enhance auto, bicycle and pedestrian
access to the shuttle system. The street system needs to be interconnected and
provide alternate routes between core business areas and surrounding
neighborhoods without requiring use of major highways.
· Bicycle/Pedestrian
Connections: Travel by foot or bicycle will
need to be facilitated for shuttle passengers at either end of their trip. A
key element of a successful transit system will be a convenient network of
sidewalks, jogging paths and bike pathways serving shuttle stops.
· Transit-Oriented
Development: Transit-oriented development
and transit-friendly land use would be promoted through a mix of housing
densities and higher intensity development in locations easily served by
transit.
· Parking: City officials will need to manage parking to reduce
congestion and promote transit ridership, including limiting right-of-way
parking, create a central parking district, and encourage visitors’ to leave
their cars at park-and-ride lots and resorts.
· Permit System: The Forest Service is considering implementing a
“parking pass” or “passport” for drivers accessing the public lands. Studies
indicate that this system could provide significant revenue to support the
infrastructure of a shuttle system. At the same time, these methods can be used
to encourage visitors to use a shuttle system rather than paying for parking.
Subsidized seasonal or annual passes would be available for Sedona area
residents.
· Enhancements: Shuttle stops will be designated at one mile or less
intervals within the Canyon and at vista points elsewhere. Appropriate vehicle
turnouts, parking and loading areas, passenger shelters and information kiosks
at each stop will also have to be constructed.
· Pathways: It is also contemplated that shuttle stops would be
connected by pathways, allowing people the convenience of taking the shuttle,
bicycling or walking to various destinations along the way within the
recreation areas.
· Gateways: The partnership between jurisdictions will also allow
the development of a network of “gateway” centers and “orientation” sites to
serve visitors entering the area. At least four gateways are contemplated. Each
would serve as possible "orientation sites", and serve as visitor
information centers, day and long-term parking facilities, and transfer points
to access the shuttle.
The
Northern Echo,
May 16, 2002
A
British initiative will bring new public transport schemes to rural areas of
Now
the council is busy developing the different elements of the scheme, which will
improve transport services in North-West Durham and Teesdale. Proposals include
a new bus service between Teesdale and Darlington and a second service in
There
would also be a county-wide travel response centre, where journeys could be
booked and operators could co-ordinate their services. Councillor Bob
Pendlebury, Durham County Council cabinet member for the environment, said:
“This money will enable the council to work with various partners to develop
flexible demand responsive services which will operate in conjunction with
existing services. This means we will be able to meet the needs of a wider
cross section of rural communities.”
“The
travel demands of a modern society are varied and often complicated. Groups who
will particularly benefit are young people, the elderly, parents with young
children, people with disabilities and people who work shifts.”
The
council has also been awarded money from the Countryside Agency to carry out a
feasibility study for a rural car club in North West Durham.
Key smart growth principles include:
The narrow, curvy and sometimes congested roads that wind
through rural northern
Though
creating wider, straighter roads might seem a logical response to increasing
traffic volume, the transportation consultants hired by the Valleys Planning
Council concluded that bigger roads only bring more cars traveling faster. The
Valleys Planning Council plans to lobby county officials to adopt the
recommendations as formal rural roads design standards. “We want the road
standards to match the land-use standards,” said Teresa Moore, executive
director of the land preservation group, which commissioned the $50,000 study.
But
when it comes time to repair a bridge or improve a road, she said, the county
uses traditional highway design standards that often are not in sync with the
county's land-use policies. “Because road and bridge construction projects are
expensive and traffic is expected to increase, even in areas where future
development has been restricted, the natural tendency of transportation
planners is to maximize capacity for future, increased volumes,” according to
the study conducted by Transportation Resource Group Inc., a York, Pa.-based
company, and Bridgescape, a Columbia-based firm. “This becomes a
self-fulfilling prophecy - the familiar 'build it and they will come'
scenario.”
By
keeping the roads and bridges narrow, the country feel of the area will be
preserved, the consultants and Valleys Planning Council officials said. “We
don't need the straightest, fastest roads,” said Jon Seitz, a partner at
Transportation Resource Group. “We want roads that meander through the
countryside. There's a natural instinct for drivers to slow down on those
roads,” said Seitz, adding that less pavement also has advantages for storm
water management.
But
Bill Korpman, deputy director of the county's Department of Public Works, said
the county rarely widens or straightens roads. “We're not going around widening
or straightening roads just on principle, only if there's a safety issue,” said
Korpman, adding that even when there is a safety concern, engineers first would
look at whether the problem could be addressed by installing a guard rail or
making another improvement to the road. The Valleys Planning Council study also
recommends:
· Property owners should not be required to
give the county such wide rights of way when they preserve land in conservation
easements.
· The community should have input about roadway
improvement projects that will change the dimensions or geometry of an existing
road.
· When widening the shoulders along roads, the
county should use grass when possible, rather than pavement.
· County officials should make sure that paving
contractors do not widen roads by adding a few inches each time they resurface
the road.
Baltimore
County Councilman T. Bryan McIntire, a North County Republican, said he
strongly supports the viewpoint expressed in the council study. “Part of the
charm of
Trudel
(1999) describes how shared and subsidized taxi services provide affordable
mobility in rural areas. Freund (2000) describes a demand-response service that
provides mobility for elderly residents.
Several
federal and state programs provide special Shuttle Services between
lower-income neighborhoods and employment centers. The
Laura Barnhardt (2005), Consultants advise letting
rural roads meander: Study finds straight streets would bring more cars to
Jon Burkhardt, James Hedrick and Adam McGavock (1998), Assessment of the Economic Impacts of Rural Public Transportation, Transit Cooperative Research Program Report 34, Transportation Research Board (www.tcrponline.org); available at http://gulliver.trb.org/publications/tcrp/tcrp_rpt_34.pdf.
CIT (2001), Rural Transport, Commission on Integrated Transport (www.cfit.gov.uk/reports/rural/seminar/index.htm).
DEA & Associates (1999),
DETR (2001), Our Countryside: The Future – A Fair Deal For Rural England, Department of Environment, Transport and Region (www.defra.gov.uk/wildlife-countryside/ruralwp).
Lori J. Duguid (2006), Implementing
Smart Growth Principles in
Dye Management (2001), Planning for Transportation
in Rural Areas, FHWA, USDOT (www.fhwa.dot.gov);
available at www.fhwa.dot.gov/planning/rural/planningfortrans/index.html.
P. Elsenaar and S. Abouraad (2005), Road Safety Best Practices - Examples and Recommendations, Global Road Safety Partnership (www.grsproadsafety.org); available at www.grsproadsafety.org/themes/default/pdfs/Road%20Safety%20Best%20Practices.pdf. This manual describes specific measures for reducing roadway risk, particularly in developing counties. It covers: Campaign and Enforcement, Awareness and Partnership, Crash Databases, Treatment of Black Spots, Road Design and Speed Management, Heath and Road Safety, and Prehospital Care.
FHWA (2002), Rural Transportation Planning, Federal Highway Administration (www.fhwa.dot.gov/planning/rural/index.html).
FHWA (2002), Planning for Transportation in Rural Areas, Federal Highway Administration, (wwwcf.fhwa.dot.gov/planning/rural/planningfortrans/index.html).
Katherine Freund
(2000), “Independent Transportation
Network; Alternative Transportation for the Elderly,” TR News, 206, Jan/Feb.
2000, pp. 3-12.
P. Gaffron, J. P. Hine and F. Mitchell
(2001), The Role Of Transport On Social
Exclusion In Urban Scotland: Literature Review, Scottish Executive Central
Research Unit (www.scotland.gov.uk/cru/kd01/blue/rtseuclrev.pdf).
International Forum for Rural Transport and Development (IFRTD) (www.gn.apc.org/ifrtd) is a global network of organizations and individuals working to improve accessibility and mobility in rural communities.
KFH Group (1999), Transit Manager Tool Kit for
Rural and Small Urban Transportation Systems, Transit Cooperative Research Program
Report 54, Transportation Research Board (www.tcrponline.org).
NWF (2001), Smart Growth and Wildlife, National Wildlife Federation (www.nwf.org).
ODOT (1995), Oregon DOT Highway Design Manual, ODOT (www.odot.state.or.us/techserv/bikewalk).
PATH (Planning for Active Transportation and Health) (www.nrsrcaa.org/path/Documents.htm), describes practical measures to increase transportation efficiency, equity and health in rural regions, sponsored by the Natural Resources Services of the Redwood Community Action Agency.
PSRC (2004), Rural Town Centers & Corridors Project, Puget Sound Regional Council (www.psrc.org/projects/rural/reports.htm). This project looked at how to identify and integrate rural highway corridor development needs with local town center development needs.
Michael Ronkin, Twenty-Two Reasons for Paved Highway Shoulders, Oregon DOT Bicycle and Pedestrian Program (www.oregon.gov/ODOT/HWY/BIKEPED); available at www.bicyclinglife.com/EffectiveAdvocacy/22reasons.htm.
Rural Transportation.org (www.ruraltransportation.org), sponsored by the National Association of Counties (NACo) and the National Association of Development Organizations (NADO), serves as an information clearinghouse for regional development professionals, local government officials and others interested in rural transportation planning and development issues.
Rural Transport Knowledge Base (www.transport-links.org/rtkb/English\Intro.htm) is a set of reference and training material of the latest thinking and practice in the field of rural transport.
Rural Transportation Planning Website (wwwcf.fhwa.dot.gov/planning/rural) by the US Federal Highway Administration provides a variety of resources and links.
SAIA
(2001), Rural ITS
Toolbox, Rural Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) Program, USDOT (www.itsdocs.fhwa.dot.gov/jpodocs/repts_te/13477.html).
Niklas Sieber (1977), An Annotated Bibliography on Rural Transport, (IFRTD) (www.gn.apc.org/ifrtd).
Paul Starkey (2003), Local Transport Solutions for Rural Development, Rural Travel & Transportation Program, Department for International Development (www.dfid.gov.uk).
Dominic Stead
(2002), “Why Rural Areas in
Britain Will Not Benefit From Lower Transport Fuel Duty,” World Transport
Policy & Practice, Vol. 8, No. 1 (http://ecoplan.org/wtpp/wt_index.htm),
Jan. 2002, pp. 42-47.
Transport and Rural Infrastructure Learning and Sharing Partnership (TRISP) (www.transport-links.org/trsp-kda), sponsored by the World Bank and UK Department for International Development, seeks to improve access to relevant knowledge for stakeholders in the transport and rural infrastructure sector in developing countries.
TransWeb (www.trans-web.ch) by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) is a gateway to knowledge about Mobility & Access in the developing world, particularly in rural areas.
TRB (2003), TR News: Rural Passenger Transportation, Number 225, Transportation Research Board (www.trb.org), March-April 2003.
Michel Trudel
(1999), “The Taxi as a Transit Mode,” Transportation Quarterly, Vol. 53, No.
4, Fall 1999, pp. 121-130.
TRL (2004), Rural Transport Policy Toolkit, Transportation Research Laboratory (www.trl.co.uk); available at www.transport-links.org/rtpt/English%5CIntro_Final.htm.
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Encyclopedia is produced by the Victoria Transport Policy Institute to help
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project. Please send us your comments and suggestions for improvement.
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